Associations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances with maternal early second trimester sex-steroid hormones

Background/Aims Pregnant women are exposed to persistent environmental contaminants, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) that disrupt thyroid function. However, it is unclear if PFAS alter maternal sex-steroid hormone levels, which support pregnancy health and fetal development. Methods In Illinois women with relatively high socioeconomic status (n = 460), we quantified perfluorononanoic (PFNA), perfluorooctane sulfonic (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic (PFOA), methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamide acetic acid, perfluorohexanesulphonic (PFHxS), perfluorodecanoic (PFDeA), and perfluoroundecanoic (PFUdA) acid concentrations in fasting serum samples at median 17 weeks gestation, along with plasma progesterone, testosterone, and estradiol. We evaluated covariate-adjusted associations of ln-transformed hormones with each ln-transformed PFAS individually using linear regression and with the PFAS mixture using quantile-based g-computation (QGComp). Results Interquartile range (IQR) increases in PFOS were associated with higher progesterone (%Δ 3.0; 95%CI: −0.6, 6.6) and estradiol (%Δ: 8.1; 95%CI: 2.2, 14.4) levels. Additionally, PFHxS was positively associated with testosterone (%Δ: 10.2; 95%CI: 4.0, 16.7), whereas both PFDeA and PFUdA were inversely associated with testosterone (%Δ: −5.7; 95%CI: −10.3, −0.8, and %Δ: −4.1; 95%CI: −7.6, −0.4, respectively). The IQR-standardized PFAS mixture was not associated with progesterone (%Δ: 1.6; 95%CI: −5.8, 9.2), due equal partial positive (%Δ: 9.2; driven by PFOA) and negative (%Δ: −7.4; driven by PFOS) mixture associations. Similarly, the mixture was not associated with testosterone (%Δ: 5.3; 95%CI: −9.0, 20.1), due to similar partial positive (%Δ: 23.6; driven by PFHxS) and negative (%Δ: −17.4; driven by PFDeA) mixture associations. However, we observed a slightly stronger partial positive (%Δ: 25.6; driven by PFOS and PFUdA) than negative (%Δ: −16.3; driven by PFOA) association resulting in an overall non-significant positive trend between the mixture and estradiol (%Δ: 8.5; 95%CI: −3.7, 20.9). Conclusion PFAS mixture modeled using QGComp was not associated with maternal sex-steroid hormones due to potential opposing effects of certain PFAS. Additional prospective studies could corroborate these findings.