Aspirin, chemically known as acetylsalicylic acid, is a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) known for its analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and antiplatelet effects. It is commonly synthesized by acetylating salicylic acid, and over time, many different synthetic methods have been developed. This review presents a detailed comparison of ten synthetic routes for preparing aspirin, including classical acetylation, acetyl chloride-based acetylation, microwave-assisted synthesis, transesterification, enzymatic acetylation, and other alternative methods. Each method was analyzed based on the type of acetylating agent, reaction conditions, yield, purity, advantages, and limitations. Among these, the microwave-assisted method showed the highest yield and fastest reaction time, while enzymatic and electrochemical methods were found to be more environmentally friendly. The study highlights how the choice of synthetic route affects not only the efficiency of aspirin production but also its scalability, cost, and environmental impact. This comparative analysis will help researchers and industries choose the most suitable method for aspirin synthesis based on their specific needs and resources.
The continuous evolution of pharmaceutical sciences has led to the emergence of novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) aimed at enhancing therapeutic efficacy, reducing side effects, and improving patient compliance. Conventional dosage forms often face challenges, including poor bioavailability, limited targeting, and variable pharmacokinetics. To overcome these limitations, advanced platforms such as nanoparticles, microneedles, and three-dimensional (3D) printed personalized medicines have gained significant attention. Nanoparticle-based systems enable precise delivery through controlled release and site-specific targeting, thereby optimizing therapeutic outcomes in oncology, neurology, and infectious diseases. Microneedles offer a minimally invasive alternative for transdermal delivery, enhancing patient acceptability while bypassing gastrointestinal degradation and first-pass metabolism. Meanwhile, 3D printing technology has revolutionized personalized pharmacotherapy by allowing on-demand fabrication of dosage forms tailored to individual patient needs, drug combinations, and release profiles. Together, these innovative strategies represent a paradigm shift from conventional formulations toward intelligent, patient-centred therapeutics. This review discusses the principles, fabrication methods, therapeutic applications, and translational challenges of these emerging drug delivery technologies. Additionally, it highlights the integration of digital health and artificial intelligence to optimize formulation design, address regulatory considerations, and chart future perspectives for precision medicine. Keywords: Novel drug delivery systems; Nanoparticles; Microneedles; 3D printing; Personalized medicine; Controlled release; Targeted therapy; Pharmaceutical innovation.
The current chapter focuses on developing a comprehensive approach in relation to the strategic role of human resources (HR) within the hospitality industry, as this constitutes a major aspect for sustainable development Further, the current proposal aims to examine how contemporary HR practices can contribute towards the establishment of an effective Green HRM that will enable the hospitality industry, and therefore its businesses, to strategically diversify their practices in order to meet contemporary requirements within the industry, especially small businesses, as the latter face increasing challenges. The existence of Green Leadership in the workplace is considered of vital importance as it provides both direction and motivation to employees, consequently, creating opportunities for active engagement and improvement of the overall organisational culture.
The requirement for tourist products and services that ensure sustainability continuously increase. Therefore, accommodation facilities have to operate sustainably and there are several green certifications, awarded to hotels, that follow environmental friendly practices. Scope of this research is to identify the importance for selection, according to the willingness to pay, for sustainability certifications and environmental friendly practices in hotels, for people, that visit and use them and in relation to their “ecological” opinions, attitudes and practices according to answers for the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale. In order to collect the opinions, structured questionnaires are used. The sample consists of permanent residents in Cyprus over 18 years old, that are fluent in Greek language and non-random convenient sampling method is implemented. To investigate if there is a relationship between environmental awareness of Cypriots, willingness to pay and different demographics such as age, sex, wage, place of residence, highest level of education, number of children, marital status, statistical correlation methods are implemented. The results show that Cypriots have a medium to high environmental awareness with a 3.47/5 NEP score and an approximate 84% of the sample, are willing to pay more for their stay in a green hotel.
This study aimed to explore the ability of Solanum nigrum (S. nigrum) to stimulate hair growth. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of two different extracts named methanol and petroleum ether from S. nigrum when applied topically. Hair loss was induced in Swiss albino rats by subcutaneously administering testosterone for 21 days. The extract was applied at the same time to assess its ability to prevent hair loss, and various measures such as follicle density, anagen/telogen (A/T) ratio, and skin section histology were monitored. Finasteride solution was used as a standard for topical application. The group treated with petroleum ether extract of S. nigrum showed noticeable hair regrowth, evidenced by increased (A/T) ratio, follicle density, and positive results in skin sections. The study’s findings suggest that the petroleum ether extract derived from S. nigrum shows potential in treating hair loss induced by testosterone in experimental animals.
