National Defence University of Warsaw

From maritime trade to commercial nuclear power, insurance has been the enabler of major economic and technological developments by pricing risk, limiting downside, and spreading best practices. The emerging AI agent economy, projected to handle trillions of dollars in transactions by 2030, looks to be the next such development. Yet insurers' exposure to AI agent risk currently sits largely unpriced across existing insurance lines; between this silent coverage and growing exclusions, coverage is not fit for purpose. Furthermore, insurability is trending the wrong way: AI agent capabilities appear to be outpacing reliability, leading to rising incident severity; concentration among a few foundation model providers threatens correlated losses; and traditional actuarial modeling will struggle to keep pace with a technology evolving as rapidly as frontier AI. This report argues that affirmative AI coverage with limits in the billions is achievable by 2030, but only with industry-wide coordination. Drawing on successful historical precedents such as Underwriters Laboratories, the Closed Claims Project, and others, we lay out an eight-component AI insurance stack spanning incident data collection, catastrophe modeling, standards, contract design, risk selection, pricing, monitoring, and claims management. Building out this infrastructure is what will enable insurers to cover and manage AI agent risk sustainably and at scale. Finally, we discuss coverage for catastrophic risk from frontier AI ("AI CAT"), including CBRN, critical infrastructure collapse, and loss of control scenarios. Addressing these tail risks will require purpose-built instruments, potentially including a frontier model developer mutual, catastrophe bonds, bespoke liability regimes, and government backstops.

The purpose of the article is to present the summarize of the experience of using unmanned aerial vehicles during the Russian-Ukrainian war in the period of 2022–2024. The methodological basis of the study is based on the principles of historicism, objectivity, and critical analysis of various sources. The authors used general scientific research methods, primarily analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, as well as special historical methods, including historical comparative studies, historical genetic and problematic chronological methods. The scientific novelty of the obtained results is that the authors for the first time in historiography revealed the strategic, operational and tactical content of the usage of unmanned aircraft during the Russian-Ukrainian war, identified the main forms and methods and trends of its use. Information on the main factors that influenced the use of unmanned aerial vehicles in the Russian-Ukrainian war has been clarified and supplemented.It has been established that the issue of the usage of unmanned aerial vehicles and its impact on the further development of military art is of considerable interest to the world scientific community. However, the incompleteness of events, constant tactical and technological changes that occur during an unfinished war and the secrecy of a significant array of sources have led to a relatively small amount of historiography on the topic. The use of unmanned aircraft was influenced by a combination of tactical, scientific, technological and economic factors. It was their influence that determined the direction of development of forms and methods of using unmanned aircraft. The main tasks performed by the parties’ unmanned aerial vehicles were to destroy enemy strategic rear facilities, fire on the enemy in operational and tactical depth, conduct aerial reconnaissance, and adjust artillery fire. Unmanned aerial vehicles were also used to provide logistical support to units in hard-to-reach areas, conduct electronic warfare, air defence and communications. The main forms of use of unmanned aircraft were air operations, systematic combat operations, air strikes of various scales, and special combat flights. The main methods of performing tasks were echeloned and single strikes, drops and launches of aircraft, barrage strikes, duty in certain areas, and flights with a variable profile. The article identifies trends in the development of the military art of unmanned aircraft, and outlines ethical and philosophical problems associated with attempts to introduce elements of artificial intelligence into the control system of strike unmanned aircraft systems. On the basis of the results obtained, the authors provide relevant recommendations.

This interdisciplinary study, situated at the intersection of strategic communications and international relations, examines the Russian information-psychological narrative that portrays Ukraine’s potential accession to NATO as the cause of the so-called “special military operation.” The research identifies the key themes and messages that comprise this narrative and analyzes their impact on Western, Ukrainian, and Russian mass audiences, as well as on political actors involved in strategic decision-making. One significant consequence of this influence was the stance taken by the Trump administration, which effectively denied Ukraine’s accession to the Alliance – at least within a foreseeable historical timeframe.The year 2025 thus marked a critical threshold, effectively closing a historical chapter spanning a quarter of a century during which Ukraine, albeit inconsistently and with interruptions, pursued the goal of NATO membership – first officially declared by the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine in 2002 as a strategic objective of national policy.

The article analyzes international standards for protecting the rights of military personnel in armed conflicts, with the primary focus on legal aspects and challenges of the 21st century. It examines the core norms of international humanitarian law (IHL) and their application to military personnel. Special attention is given to the observance of military personnel’s rights under the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols. The article assesses the extent to which these provisions are upheld in the context of modern armed conflicts and explores instances of their violation.A significant place in the article is dedicated to Ukraine’s experience in safeguarding the rights of its military personnel in context of armed conflicts. It investigates the measures taken by the state to ensure the rights of military personnel, particularly in terms of legal and social protection, as well as cases of violations of such protection and the mechanisms employed to address them.Additionally, the role of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN), North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and others in monitoring and ensuring compliance with the rights of military personnel in armed conflicts is examined. The mechanisms of the international community’s response to violations of military personnel’s rights are outlined, along with an evaluation of their effectiveness. The role of international courts, such as the International Criminal Court (ICC), the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), and other judicial bodies, in addressing cases related to violations of military personnel’s rights is acknowledged. Precedents that have significantly influenced the development of human rights protection practices are explored.Thus, authors of article provide a comprehensive overview of current legal aspects of protecting military personnel’s rights in modern armed conflicts, highlights contemporary challenges, and suggests ways to address legislative gaps amid the dynamic evolution of international law.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been playing havoc on a global scale and the armed forces’ involvement in civil protection became a necessity, especially in the periods when the pandemic reached its peaks. Referring to that situation the paper discusses: the nature of the COVID-19 pandemic and its development in Poland, the adaptation of the security services and the recommendations to support civil protection during the biological threat. The discussion is based on the analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic development in Poland. It refers to statistics, reports, experience, empirical study on cooperation of the Territorial Defence Force and medical personnel to identify the areas for improvement and recommend the solutions for more sustainable civil protection. The military units can be a crucial operational element that supports civil medical and sanitary services. The legal basis and procedures adapted to the changing security environment can considerably enhance its operational effectivenessStreszczeniePandemia COVID-19 sieje spustoszenie w skali globalnej, a zaangażowanie sił zbrojnych w ochronę ludności stało się koniecznością, szczególnie w okresach, gdy pandemia osiągała swoje apogeum. Odnosząc się do tej sytuacji, w artykule omówiono: charakter pandemii COVID-19 i jej rozwój w Polsce; adaptację służb bezpieczeństwa; rekomendacje dotyczące wsparcia ochrony ludności w czasie zagrożenia biologicznego. Dyskusja opiera się na analizie rozwoju pandemii COVID-19 w Polsce. Odnosi się do statystyk, raportów, doświadczeń, badań empirycznych dotyczących współpracy Wojsk Obrony Terytorialnej i personelu medycznego w celu zidentyfikowania obszarów wymagających poprawy i rekomendacji rozwiązań dla bardziej zrównoważonej ochrony ludności. Jednostki wojskowe mogą być kluczowym elementem operacyjnym wspierającym cywilne służby medyczne i sanitarne. Podstawy prawne i procedury dostosowane do zmieniającego się środowiska bezpieczeństwa mogą znacznie zwiększyć ich skuteczność operacyjnąZusammenfassungDie COVID-19-Pandemie richtet weltweit verheerende Schäden an, und die Einbeziehung der Streitkräfte in den Bevölkerungsschutz ist zu einer Notwendigkeit geworden, insbesondere in Zeiten, in denen die Pandemie ihren Höhepunkt erreicht hat. Demnach handelt der Artikel von der Art der COVID-19-Pandemie und ihrer Entwicklung in Polen, der Anpassung der Sicherheitskräfte und den Empfehlungen für die Unterstützung des Bevölkerungsschutzes bei einem biologischen Notfall. Die Diskussion stützt sich auf eine Analyse der Entwicklung der COVID-19-Pandemie in Polen. Sie bezieht sich auch auf Statistiken, Berichte, Erfahrungen und empirische Studien über die Zusammenarbeit zwischen den territorialen Verteidigungskräften und dem medizinischen Personal. Das Ziel ist die Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten aufzuzeigen und Lösungen für einen nachhaltigeren Schutz der Bevölkerung zu empfehlen. Militärische Einheiten können ein wichtiges operatives Element zur Unterstützung der zivilen medizinischen und Gesundheitsdienste sein. Rechtsgrundlagen und Verfahren, die an das sich verändernde Sicherheitsumfeld angepasst sind, können ihre operative Effizienz erheblich steigernРезюмеПандемия COVID-19 несет серьезный ущерб в глобальном масштабе, и поэтому обеспечение участия вооруженных сил в защите населения стало необходимостью, особенно в то время, когда пандемия достигала своего пика. Исходя из этого в статье рассматриваются: специфика пандемии COVID-19 и ее развитие в Польше; процесс подготовки служб безопасности; рекомендации по поддержке защиты населения во время чрезвычайных биологических ситуаций. Обсуждение основано на анализе развития пандемии COVID-19 в Польше. Оно опирается на статистику, отчеты, опыт, эмпирические исследования, касающиеся сотрудничества между Войсками территориальной обороны и медицинским персоналом, чтобы определить сферы, которые нуждаются в улучшении, и рекомендовать решения для более устойчивой защиты населения. Военные подразделения могут быть ключевым оперативным фактором, поддерживающим гражданские медицинские и санитарные службы. Правовая основа и процедуры, соответствующие меняющимся условиям безопасности, могут значительно повысить их оперативную эффективность