The inflammasome, a supramolecular complex, plays important role in the gut-brain axis (GBA), acting as a sensor of cellular stress and danger signals. It activates inflammatory responses, and its dysregulation has been implicated in neurological diseases. Various inflammasomes, such as NLRP3, NLRC4, and AIM2, contribute to disease progression by promoting inflammation, tissue damage, and oxidative stress. These inflammasomes recognize and get activated by different stimuli, such as ATP, fluctuations in ion fluxes, nucleic acids, and molecular signatures associated with pathogens, eventually releasing inflammatory cytokines, and triggering inflammatory responses. Although the inflammatory response is orchestrated, sometimes it might happen that its dysregulation causes excessive and sustained inflammation leading to cellular damage and tissue injuries. Inhibiting or modulating these inflammasomes can therefore, provide therapeutic benefits. Targeting NLRP3, like MCC950, has shown promise in reducing inflammation. Some natural compounds have also been found to inhibit NLRP3 and other inflammasomes. Interestingly, regulating the gut microbiome can impact inflammasome activation, and reduce unsolicited inflammation. This review explores the bidirectional communication network between the gut and brain, and emphasizes the importance of understanding the role of inflammasomes in the GBA which can lead to novel therapeutic strategies for neurological diseases like Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's.
Exosomes, a specialized group of extracellular vesicles (EVs) ranging from 30 to 150 nm in size, have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication across both mammalian and plant kingdoms. By facilitating the transfer of bioactive cargo, these vesicles orchestrate complex signalling networks essential for physiological homeostasis and pathological progression. Extensive research into both plant and mammalian exosomes has established their inherent biocompatibility and potential as cell-free systems for the targeted delivery of therapeutic drugs in the management of various diseases, including cancer. Moreover, exosomes have unique molecular signatures that enable the identification of their cell of origin and serve as high-fidelity biomarkers for precise disease diagnosis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of exosomal biology, beginning with the critical importance of standardized isolation and enrichment protocols to ensure sample purity and yield. This review also evaluates contemporary detection and characterization methodologies, ranging from nanoparticle tracking analysis to super-resolution microscopy, which are essential for defining exosomal identity. Moreover, the dual role of exosomes in cancer and disease progression, emphasizing their ability to modulate the tumour microenvironment and serve as non-invasive biomarkers for liquid biopsies, has also been explored. Bioengineering strategies such as genetic manipulation of the host cell or chemical modification of the exosome surface, can enhance their targeting precision and therapeutic loading capacity. The review also discusses the capacity of these vesicles to be loaded with exogenous drugs, including small molecules and RNA-based therapeutics, transforming them into potent, site-specific delivery vehicles. Despite their immense potential as biocompatible, cell-free drug delivery vehicles, several translational hurdles, including large-scale manufacturing consistency and regulatory complexities, remain as significant challenges, which if addressed, can lead to a shift toward personalized exosome-based diagnosis and therapy that could revolutionize the management of cancer and other complex systemic disorders.
Here, we employed a Zr4N4 catalyst to investigate the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) via state-of-the-art density functional theory (DFT). The active site was identified at the hollow site for the horizontal adsorption of CO2. Furthermore, the electronic properties were analyzed through HOMO-LUMO energy gap calculations, projected density of states (PDOS), and total density of states (TDOS). Based on the adsorption energies of the key intermediates (OCHO and COOH), the results reveal that CO2 reduction proceeds toward the formation of CO and HCOOH. Our study further highlights the interaction of the Zr4N4 atomic cluster as a catalyst with different hydrocarbons through Gibbs free energy analysis. The results indicate that, among the two possible pathways, the most favorable route is the formation of HCOOH. The electrochemical reduction of CO2 to formic acid and carbon monoxide was also examined in terms of the required overpotential. The calculated limiting potentials for CO and HCOOH are -0.91 V and -0.44 V, respectively. Furthermore, direct dissociation of CO2 to CO was observed using the nudged elastic band (NEB) method.
Abstract This study investigates characteristics of ionospheric irregularities over the East–West Asian equatorial region using the Rate of TEC Index (ROTI) derived from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements. Data from four stations (GUAM, PIMO, CUSV, and IISC) were analyzed for 2008–2023, covering solar cycle (SC) 24 and the ascending phase of SC 25. While our findings are generally aligned with previous research, this work presents new insights into the complex behavior of ionospheric scintillation in this sector. A key finding is the significant spatial variability in irregularity occurrence, with stations at similar magnetic dip (11–13°) exhibiting varying activity levels. Notable longitudinal asymmetries were also identified, particularly at GUAM, which shows reduced autumnal activity, likely due to local differences in Pre‐Reversal Enhancement (PRE) and magnetic declination. Our study shows a clear daily pattern: scintillation begins after sunset (18:00–19:00 LT), peaks in the late evening (20:00–21:30 LT), and declines by early morning. A slight increase in ROTI is consistently observed just before sunrise at all locations. Temporally, results show dependence on the 11‐year SC and a distinct seasonal pattern, with activity concentrated in equinoctial months. The spring maximum is generally stronger than the autumn one across stations. Finally, although the long‐term trend follows the SC, the relationship is non‐linear. Outliers, such as anomalous activity in 2019, demonstrate that while the Sunspot Number (SSN) is a primary long‐term driver, scintillation is also modulated by short‐term geophysical phenomena.
The detection of explosive nitroaromatic compounds has elicited universal apprehension regarding human well-being. This study demonstrates the electrochemical determination of a hazardous substance, 4-nitroaniline (4-NA), employing NiO/ZnO/AlO multiple metal oxide nanocomposites (NiO/ZnO/AlO MMO NCs)-modified screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). In this work, we synthesized individual NiO, ZnO, and AlO nanoparticles (NPs) and NiO/ZnO/AlO MMO NCs through green reduction approaches using Citrullus lanatus fruit juice for the first time. Structural and morphological changes produced by different metal compositions were observed and confirmed using SEM. The dispersed multiphase matrices comprising the four biosynthesized materials exhibited diverse morphologies and nanoparticle forms. UV, FT-IR, XRD, EDAX, and elemental mapping techniques were employed to examine the elemental and phase arrangements of the green-synthesized materials. The prepared NiO/ZnO/AlO MMO NCs were employed to detect 4-NA by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and amperometry. Moreover, the electrochemical performance of NiO/ZnO/AlO MMO NCs/SPCE was compared with individually modified SPCEs using NiO, ZnO, and AlO NPs in 0.1 M NaCl electrolyte at pH 6.5. The developed electrochemical sensor displayed good sensitivity (5.941 mu A nM-1), a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.209 nM, and a linear range of 2-30 nM. In addition, NiO/ZnO/AlO MMO NCs/SPCE showed excellent selectivity against other potential interfering species in tap water samples. Consequently, the designed and constructed sensor can be used to determine 4-NA in real-time monitoring systems.
