Existing studies show a reliable association between literacy and mental health problems, such as anxiety and depressive symptoms. Much of this research has been conducted with primary school-age children, with less research focusing on adolescents and older adults. The current study included a sample of children (N = 478; Mage = 10.1, SDage = 1.9), adolescents (N = 438; Mage = 15.6, SDage = 1.7), and older adults (N = 111; Mage = 68.5, SDage = 6.0) who completed measures of self-reported literacy difficulties, anxiety (reading anxiety, social anxiety, generalised anxiety, panic, separation anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms) and depressive symptoms. Analyses included partial correlations and associations compared across age groups. We found significant and moderate-to-strong correlations between literacy and reading anxiety for children (parent and self-report), adolescents (parent and self-report), and older adults. There were moderate and significant associations between literacy and social anxiety for children (self-report) and older adults, but not for adolescents. There were moderate and significant associations between literacy and depressive symptoms for children (self-report). These results show associations between literacy and reading anxiety symptoms at various life stages, including childhood, adolescence, and older adulthood, and between literacy and depressive symptoms for children - highlighting the need for pathways of care to support individuals of all ages.
We investigated racial and ethnic disparities in learning disabilities (LD) identification in U.S. elementary schools including before and after proposal and implementation of the federal Equity in IDEA regulations. We analyzed repeated cross-sectional data from large samples of U.S. fourth graders participating in the National Assessment of Educational Progress ( N = 1,607,010; n s = 103,150 to 205,860) across 2003 to 2022. Multivariable logistic regression models adjusting for potential confounds including student academic achievement, English Language Learner (ELL) status, family economic background, and school contextual factors yielded consistent evidence of LD under-identification of students of color in U.S. elementary schools. These disparities have been largely stable over time, particularly for Black students (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] range = 0.50 to 0.69) and students of other races or ethnicities (aOR range = 0.47 to 0.82). Hispanic students (aOR range = 0.45 to 0.83), girls (aOR range = 0.64 to 0.90), and ELLs (aOR range = 0.32 to 0.59) have also been consistently less likely to be identified. The size of these disparities has decreased over time. We observed no evidence of LD over-identification of students of color to support the Equity in IDEA regulations.
This study aimed to validate a fluency-based curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tool for identifying kindergarten students at risk for mathematics learning disabilities within a Spanish-speaking context, addressing the need to examine early numeracy screening beyond predominantly English-speaking environments. A sample of 302 kindergarten students was assessed at three intervals (beginning, middle, and end of the year) using fluency-based measures targeting skills such as quantity discrimination, quantity array, missing number, number identification, and counting aloud. The number identification task and a composite score emerged as particularly strong predictors of risk status, demonstrating adequate reliability, concurrent validity, and predictive validity. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and hierarchical linear modeling confirmed the accuracy of this screening tool in identifying students at risk and capturing growth across the year. Longitudinal measurement invariance analyses further confirmed that a stable latent factor was consistently represented across kindergarten benchmarks. These findings are discussed in light of the need for context-specific validation within Spanish-speaking educational settings.
This study examined the impacts of an AI chatbot intervention for improving arithmetic word-problem-solving among Chinese primary students with dyslexia and explored how different types of motivation moderated these effects. Eighty-three students diagnosed with dyslexia were recruited and randomly assigned to either an AI chatbot-assisted learning condition or a traditional instruction control group. Over 6 weeks, the experimental AI chatbot group received adaptive, multisensory, and individually tailored support for arithmetic word problems. Results revealed that the Chatbot group witnessed significantly greater gains in arithmetic word-problem-solving performance than the control group. Moderation analyses showed that intrinsic motivation, but not extrinsic motivation or amotivation, significantly enhanced the intervention's impacts. Intrinsic motivation emerged as the key factor that amplifies the impact of the intervention. The experimental group exhibited substantial increases in intrinsic motivation and reductions in amotivation, whereas the control group's motivation remained unchanged. These findings indicate the importance of intrinsic motivation in maximizing the educational impact of AI-based interventions to support students with dyslexia.
Instructional decision-making is a defining feature of data-based individualization (DBI) for students with intensive learning needs, yet its added value in facilitating growth in writing remains underexplored. This study examined sentence-level writing growth among 38 elementary students with early writing needs who received DBI support. Students completed weekly progress monitoring over 14 weeks, and teachers made instructional decisions at Week 8. Using piecewise linear-linear mixed-effects modeling, we compared growth rates before and after this decision point. Overall, students improved in sentence-level writing, but growth did not significantly accelerate after Week 8 when analyzed as a group. With respect to instructional decision type (e.g., with and without instructional change), students whose teachers made instructional changes began with slower initial growth but accelerated after Week 8, whereas those whose teachers continued instruction (with or without raising the long-term goal) started with faster initial growth but showed sustained or slightly decelerated growth. These findings underscore the importance of timely instructional modifications for students with inadequate initial progress.
This quasi-experimental study examined the benefit of intervention focusing on awareness and flexible use of strategies in arithmetic and reading among Finnish children with comorbid arithmetic and reading fluency problems (Grades 2-4). Children participated either in a calculation intervention (n = 45) or a reading intervention (n = 51) or received business-as-usual support at school (n = 47). Both domain-specific and cross-domain effects were investigated. The calculation group improved in single- and multi-digit addition fluency significantly more than the other two groups, while the progress in sentence and text reading fluency was not different in the reading intervention group compared with the other two groups. Also, neither intervention showed cross-domain effects. The results of this study add to the existing knowledge of pedagogical practices to support arithmetic and reading fluency in children with comorbid difficulties and lead us to consider the developmental and instructional differentiations between the skills.
Statistical literacy is widely regarded as a core competency for academic achievement and informed decision-making across disciplines. However, many students experience elevated statistics anxiety and hold negative attitudes toward statistics, which can hinder their learning outcomes. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences between students with and without learning disabilities (SLD) and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in statistics anxiety, attitudes toward statistics, and statistical literacy, and to examine the mediating role of attitudes in the relationship between statistics anxiety and statistical literacy. A total of 405 higher education students participated: 44 students with SLD/ADHD, 50 students with only-ADHD, and 311 without SLD/ADHD. Participants completed the Hebrew statistical anxiety rating scale and a statistical literacy assessment. Results showed that students with SLD/ADHD experienced higher levels of statistics anxiety and less favorable attitudes toward statistics compared to students without SLD/ADHD. Computational self-concept emerged as a significant mediator between test and class anxiety-a component of statistics anxiety-and statistical literacy for students with SLD/ADHD. The study highlights the importance of addressing both attitudinal and anxiety factors in statistics education for students with SLD/ADHD, as well as the need for targeted interventions to foster statistical literacy in higher education.
University students with specific learning disorders (SLDs) continue to encounter substantial challenges despite increased access to higher education (HE). This systematic review synthesized evidence on (a) strategies and accommodations students with SLD use to achieve academically, (b) psychological consequences of their learning experiences, and (c) the role of institutional policies and practices in fostering inclusion. Following PRISMA guidelines, 34 studies published between 1994 and 2024 were identified through Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, PsycINFO, and PubMed. Eligible studies examined formally diagnosed SLDs (dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dysorthographia) in HE. Students with SLDs rely on compensatory strategies-metacognitive regulation, time management, and assistive technologies-that support participation but demand disproportionate effort. Psychological evidence highlights elevated anxiety, stigma, and reduced confidence, although self-efficacy and resilience often act as protective factors. Institutional frameworks provide formal rights, but implementation is inconsistent, with faculty awareness emerging as a decisive factor. Accommodations are indispensable yet insufficient when poorly delivered. Findings underscore both the resilience of students with SLDs and the fragility of institutional support, reinforcing the need for a universal design and greater faculty engagement.
Mathematics fact fluency is essential for proficiency in advanced topics, such as algebra. However, many students in the United States, including those in elementary and secondary grades, experience mathematics difficulties (MD) and struggle to develop fluency with mathematics facts. We synthesized findings from 35 group-design studies, reporting 178 effect sizes (ESs), conducted between 1975 and June 2024, to evaluate the efficacy of fact fluency interventions and identify key malleable moderators of intervention outcomes. Results from a Robust Variance Estimation (RVE) model revealed an educationally meaningful average ES (g = 0.76), providing evidence of the overall efficacy of fact fluency interventions. However, the prediction interval (-0.60 to 2.12) indicated substantial heterogeneity in treatment effects, warranting further investigation. To explore this variability, we conducted a meta-regression analysis to examine the role of intervention dosage indicators (e.g., frequency) and alignment indicators (e.g., grade level) while accounting for study-level confounders (e.g., publication era). Significant moderators included two dosage indicators (i.e., grouping and total sessions) and two alignment indicators (i.e., operation focus and outcome measures). We discuss these results in relation to limitations, implications for future research, and classroom practice.
This study investigates disparities in the identification of specific learning difficulties (SpLD) in England. We estimated multilevel logistic regression models on National Pupil Database records for approximately 540,000 Year 6 students across 14,800 schools. Student-level predictors included academic performance in reading and math, gender, English as an additional language (EAL) status, mobility status, and individual economic deprivation indicator; school-level predictors included average school reading and math attainment, proportion of EAL students, and average deprivation. Substantial between-school variation in SpLD identification was observed. After controlling for attainment and student background characteristics, EAL students had markedly lower odds of identification. Similarly, female students were less likely to be identified for SpLD than their male peers. Furthermore, higher average school-level deprivation predicted reduced identification odds. These findings highlight that systemic and contextual factors, alongside individual learning profiles, shape SpLD identification and raise concerns about equitable access to assessment and support for a diverse group of learners.
Understanding the role of individual factors associated with positive academic outcomes is fundamental to providing effective support for students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) throughout their academic careers. The present study aimed to investigate group differences between students with and without SLDs and to examine the relationships between study-related factors, social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills, and student outcomes (achievement, academic and life satisfaction, and burnout) in a sample of 752 university students (133 male; Mage = 22.28 years, SDage = 5.35; 125 with SLDs). The results of the group comparisons showed that students with SLDs reported lower scores in academic self-efficacy, SRL strategies, and self-management skills. This finding suggests that their difficulties may extend beyond the academic domain. Furthermore, we ran a multivariate regression model including study-related factors and SEB skills as independent variables and student outcomes as dependent variables. The results showed that the associations of study-related factors and SEB skills with student outcomes were comparable between students with and without SLDs, although cooperation skills were significantly associated with academic burnout in students without SLDs, but not in students with SLDs. These findings have the potential to inform the development of student-centered practice and policy.
Students in grades 2 through 4 with significant word reading difficulties were randomly assigned to one of two 10-week interventions. In the Dual Treatment condition, decoding instruction emphasized regularity in spelling-sound correspondence, sound-by-sound decoding, and separately taught high-frequency words on a whole-word basis. In the Integrated condition, decoding instruction interleaved regularity and variability in spelling-sound correspondence, targeted larger letter units, and aligned high-frequency word instruction with decoding. At posttest, statistically significant differences favored the Integrated condition on standardized word reading efficiency (g = 0.37), silent word identification fluency (g = 0.41), and an intervention-aligned list of words not targeted in either condition (g = 0.26). Although not statistically significant, effect sizes also favored the Integrated condition on standardized sentence reading efficiency (g = 0.25), intervention-aligned letter-sound correspondence (g = 0.24), and other word lists taught or not taught in both conditions (gs = 0.12 to 0.21). A nonstatistically significant effect favored the Dual Treatment condition on intervention-aligned correct letter sequences spelling (g = -0.19), and null effects were observed on a standardized oral reading fluency (g = 0.04) and intervention-aligned whole word spelling (g = 0.02). Supported exposure to greater variability in spelling-sound correspondence may improve generalized word reading skills.
Executive function is critical for writing, yet its role in children with writing difficulties (WD) remains underexplored. This study examines differences in three executive-function subcomponents (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) between children with and without WD, and their effects on spelling and sentence-writing abilities, mediated by visual-motor integration. The focus on Chinese children addresses a critical gap in the predominantly Western-alphabetic writing difficulties literature. A total of 244 Chinese primary school students (122 with WD, 122 without WD) were assessed. Children with WD demonstrated significantly lower accuracy and longer reaction times in executive function tasks as well as lower visual-motor integration scores, compared with their peers without WD. Structural equation modeling revealed that working memory and inhibitory control indirectly predicted writing performance through visual-motor integration, while cognitive flexibility had no significant effect. These findings suggest that executive function impairments, particularly in working memory and inhibitory control, may contribute to WD through their influence on visual-motor integration. The study highlights the importance of addressing both executive function and visual-motor integration in interventions targeting children with WD.
Fluency is a multidimensional construct that requires automaticity with foundational skills. Fluency is not an end in itself but serves as a bridge between decoding and reading comprehension. However, many secondary students struggle with proficient reading and fail to attain the most functional levels of literacy, even after receiving intensive reading interventions. The current study investigated the effects of repeated reading interventions on the oral reading fluency of adolescents at risk for and with reading disabilities. Sixty-eight students in Grades 6 through 8 (35 female, 33 male) were taught by 11 teachers and participated in either Repeated Reading Plus or Silent Repeated Reading. Hierarchical residual change regressions were conducted to evaluate the main effect and interaction effects of Repeated Reading Plus and Silent Repeated Reading on oral reading fluency (words correct per minute). Grade level and special education status were included as covariates. Multilevel analyses were used to account for between-teacher variability. Results indicate repeated reading interventions that include previewing multisyllabic words, fluent modeling of connected text, repeated partner reading, and answering comprehension questions may support the oral reading fluency of middle school students with reading difficulties and disabilities.
This study aimed to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the mathematics-writing (MW) performance of students with mathematics difficulties (MDs) in China. We compared the performance of students with MD with their typically developing (TD) and high-performing (HP) peers. The analysis was based on a sample of 138 sixth-grade students. Our findings revealed (a) the trend in MW performance followed the hierarchy of mathematics ability levels (HP > TD > MD), whereas all groups displayed similar performance in general writing (HP = TD = MD), (b) although all three groups were able to organize their ideas in general writing, they had difficulty structuring their ideas effectively in MW, and (c) students with MD were less likely to incorporate technical mathematics vocabulary and symbols in their MW; they were also more likely to write incomplete sentences and make punctuation mistakes in their MW. Implications for educational strategies, teaching methodologies, and targeted support interventions are discussed.
This study investigates the time-use patterns of students with learning disabilities during digital mathematics assessments and explores the role of extended time accommodations (ETA) in shaping these patterns. Using latent profile analysis, four distinct time-use profiles were identified separately for students with and without ETA. “Initial Focusers” spend more time on simpler initial items and less time on later, more difficult items, exhibiting high omission rates and low performance. “Rapid Progressors” complete assessments quickly but exhibit shallow engagement across all items, achieving low performance. “Diligent Time Maximizers” allocate time effortfully across items but often run out of time on the last two items when ETA was not granted, achieving the second-highest scores. “Efficient Prioritizers,” excel in strategic time management, score the highest, and report strong persistence and interest in math. The findings reveal that ETA supports students who adopt meticulous strategies, such as Diligent Time Maximizers, but does not universally address the challenges faced by other profiles. This study underscores the need for tailored interventions and accommodations aligned with individual time-use profiles to foster equitable and effective learning and assessment environments.
In the context of increasing legislative emphasis on universal screening for reading problems, the accurate and equitable assessment of English learners (ELs) remains a pressing concern. This study examines how kindergarten and first-grade students' performance on early literacy measures in English is affected by their English proficiency. In this paper, we report on performance on measures of deletion, picture naming, sentence repetition, letter naming fluency, word and nonword reading, and rapid object naming across the school year. Drawing on a diverse and representative sample of 3,064 students across 31 U.S. Californian schools, we addressed two main research questions. First, we compared the performance of English-only students (EO) to ELs and to students identified as English-proficient (EP) but speaking another language at home. Findings indicated that ELs consistently scored lower than their EO and EP peers across all assessments. Second, we compared growth patterns. While most measures showed similar growth rates, a significant performance gap remained for ELs (p < .001). Notably, EP students displayed distinct performance patterns, outperforming EO students in most tasks, except for those demanding more vocabulary. Our findings emphasize the importance of tailored assessment approaches and consideration of English proficiency when interpreting ELs' performance.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a fraction vocabulary intervention with fraction arithmetic components on fraction vocabulary knowledge and fraction arithmetic competencies among fourth-grade Chinese students with mathematics difficulties. We randomly assigned 70 students with mathematics difficulties to three conditions: fraction vocabulary only (n = 23), fraction vocabulary with an arithmetic component (n = 23), and a business-as-usual (BaU) condition (n = 24). The students in the fraction vocabulary intervention conditions participated in 10 sessions, occurring three times per week. Students within both intervention conditions showed significantly better performance in fraction vocabulary knowledge than those in the BaU condition. However, no notable distinctions were observed between the two intervention conditions in terms of fraction arithmetic. Only students who received the fraction vocabulary intervention with an arithmetic component exhibited enhanced performance in subtraction with like denominators compared to the BaU condition.
Labeling students with learning problems may change teachers' evaluations of them. Our study examined whether the "Special Learning Needs" (SLN) and "Learning Disability" (LD) labels influenced teachers' beliefs that the diagnosis was correct and activated a low-competence stereotype. We examined whether this stereotype lowered teachers' performance expectations and teaching intentions. A sample of 413 German general and special education teachers were randomly assigned to the control (no label) or one of the experimental groups (SLN/LD label). All teachers read the description of a fictitious student with learning problems. Only in the experimental groups was the student labeled with an LD or SLN. Results showed that both labels increased teachers' acceptance of the diagnosis as accurate. However, the labels did not change teachers' stereotypes of the fictitious student. The LD label lowered some of teachers' long-term performance expectations, resulting in more track recommendations to a special school. Unexpectedly, the SLN label increased the intention to foster the student's academic performance. Some performance expectations of special education teachers were lower than those of general education teachers, which did not manifest in different teaching intentions. The findings are discussed in the context of the Dilemma of Difference.
Despite children with learning disabilities (LDs) being at high risk for reading delays, how the informal home literacy environment (HLE) of LD children compares to that of their non-LD peers has not previously been investigated. Neither has the extent to which informal HLE is associated with pre-reading skills been compared for these two groups. To address these questions, we analyzed the data of 2,090 U.S. children with and without LDs from the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2010-2011 (ECLS-K:2011). Children with LDs had a lower informal HLE the summer before kindergarten than those without LDs, although this difference was not independent of group differences in socioeconomic status (SES). Next, informal HLE was associated with pre-reading skills at the start of kindergarten comparably for children with and without LDs, and this remained true after accounting for SES. In conclusion, LD children experience lower informal HLE than their non-LD peers.
