Social value judgments help people evaluate which characteristics in others are desirable, affiliative, or potentially costly within social relationships. This cross-sectional study examined age-related differences in these judgments, and their associations with depressive symptoms and perceived social status, using a newly developed Social Value Questionnaire (SVQ) in a large English-speaking sample (N = 681, aged 12-65 years, M = 38.34, SD = 14.91; 66% female). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a four-factor structure comprising Warmth, Unpleasantness, Sociability, and Competence. Structural equation modeling showed age-graded differences in endorsement: Warmth was more strongly endorsed at older ages, whereas Unpleasantness, Sociability, and Competence were less strongly endorsed. Depressive symptoms and perceived social status were each uniquely associated with greater tolerance of Unpleasantness in others, independent of age. These findings suggest that social-evaluative preferences vary systematically across age groups, while also being linked to mood and perceived rank. We discuss these cross-sectional age differences in relation to lifespan motivational theory, contemporary models of social evaluation, and evolutionary accounts of depressed mood.
There is a need to effectively measure mentalization in people with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSD) due to its relevance for delusions and hallucinations. The RFQ-8 appears to be an easy-to-administer screening tool for mentalization, but its factor structure is debated. In this study, we examined the psychometric properties of the RFQ‑8 model in individuals with SSD (n = 100) and healthy controls (n = 380). Criterion validity was tested through associations with attachment style and emotional dysregulation. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used. With a single residual correlation between items 3 and 4, a one-factor solution showed adequate fit. Reliability was acceptable (ωcases = .75; ωcontrols = .76). Partial metric invariance held, but item 7 showed scalar non-invariance, suggesting it should be revised or removed. Secure attachment predicted better mentalizing only in controls, while avoidant and ambivalent styles related to reduced mentalizing. Emotional dysregulation was the strongest predictor of hypomentalizing across groups. Overall, the findings provide support for the single‑factor RFQ‑8 but indicates some measurement issues, particularly related to reverse‑coded items in SSD populations.
Research and theory on mattering have evolved considerably, and the focus has been on individual differences in levels of feelings of mattering and not mattering to others. This work sought to advance understanding by uniquely examining individual differences in the need to matter and who is most impacted and influenced by feelings of not mattering to others. We introduce measures that assess levels of the need to matter, the personal importance of mattering (i.e., the importance of being important), and mattering hypersensitivity (i.e., vulnerability to feeling hurt when made to feel insignificant). Psychometric analyses confirmed that these measures comprise one factor each, with high internal consistency and adequate convergent validity. Correlational analyses established links between elevated scores and levels of psychological distress and narcissistic personality traits. Most notably, the unmet need to matter predicted unique variance in psychological distress and narcissistic traits beyond the variance attributable to self-esteem, general mattering, anti-mattering and fear of not mattering. Overall, these results attest to the research utility of the proposed measures, and they illustrate the risk to mental health and personal vulnerability of people with an unmet need to matter who have a heightened sensitivity and importance associated with whether they matter to other people.
Recent research has argued for the presence of perceived contribution as an aspect of perceived burdensomeness, a factor associated with suicidal ideation. To evaluate the potential role of perceived contribution within the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide, a valid measure of perceived contribution is required. This study describes the development and initial validation of a self-report measure of perceived contribution. Data were drawn from two samples (N = 518 community adults and N = 1,378 college students). Both samples were predominantly assigned female at birth (67.8% and 82.2%, respectively) and non-Hispanic White (63.7% and 55.3%, respectively). Analyses examined item clarity, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, measurement invariance, and reliability and validity. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 13-item, 2-factor solution, with factors representing contribution to family and contribution to community. Confirmatory factor analysis further refined the scale. Configural invariance was found across all demographic subgroups, but support for metric and scalar invariance was limited. Initial support for convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity was found, but support for incremental validity was limited. Additional evaluation of the Perceived Contribution Scale should examine its use among diverse populations. Future research is needed to examine the role of perceived contribution within the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide.
Awe is a universal emotion, yet its conceptualization and measurement in nomadic cultural contexts remain largely underexplored. To address this gap, we developed and validated the Dispositional Awe Scale for Mongolians (DAS-M) within a nomadic cultural framework from a socio-ecological psychology perspective. Using a mixed-methods approach-including focus group interviews, ethnographic fieldwork, and exploratory/confirmatory factor analyses-we examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of DAS-M. Results demonstrated a first-order five-factor structure comprising 18 items: Deference to Sacred Authority, Divine Guardianship, Bio-reverence, Transcendent Becoming, and Harmonization with Natural Order. DAS-M exhibits sound measurement qualities and satisfactory model fit. The scale captures both the universal core of awe and culturally specific features of nomadic Mongolian culture, thus providing a reliable measurement tool for future research on awe in nomadic contexts.
Personality functioning difficulties, which include components of self and interpersonal functioning difficulties, provide an indicator of severity when diagnosing personality disorders using the Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD). This study used a sample of 271 adults in the United States who completed both self-report surveys and interview measures of psychopathology to identify multimethod symptom associations for personality functioning difficulties, as measured by the Level of Personality Functioning-Brief Form 2.0 (LPFS-BF 2.0). Correlational and regression analyses indicated that personality functioning relates to a range of psychopathology, but especially strongly to internalizing symptoms rated across methods. When examining associations for specific personality functioning dimensions, self-functioning correlated more strongly with internalizing measures (e.g., dysphoric mood), while interpersonal functioning correlated more strongly with externalizing symptoms and trait measures (e.g., interpersonal difficulties). We use these findings to inform discussion of personality functioning assessment within the context of transdiagnostic dimensional frameworks, while also providing ideas for sharpening personality functioning assessment in research and practice going forward.
The Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP) can be used to assess respondents' general interpersonal distress and specific interpersonal style. In addition to a 64-item version, multiple 32-item versions exist. This includes the IIP-32 that is also in the IIP-64 manual and the IIP-Short Circumplex (IIP-SC); both were previously derived from the IIP-64. The psychometric characteristics of the English IIP-SC were previously assessed in an American student sample. The psychometric characteristics of a Dutch IIP-32 were previously assessed in a Flemish student sample. The present study aimed to replicate this work in English-speaking international students, and extend it to Dutch students. Participants were students in an undergraduate Psychology program in the Netherlands who completed the IIP-64, the Borderline Features scale of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI-BOR), and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) in English (n = 234) or Dutch (n = 326). IIP-32 and IIP-SC scores were derived from IIP-64 scores. We provide data on the reliability, structural validity, and (using the PAI-BOR and NPI) construct validity of the English and Dutch IIP-SC and IIP-32. Both IIP versions were psychometrically acceptable. We also provide English and Dutch normative data for use in future studies.
This systematic review provides the first comprehensive synthesis of Rorschach case reports published over the past 50 years. A total of 217 articles published between 1974 and 2025 were identified through searches in Scopus, PsycInfo, and PubMed, complemented by manual screening of the Journal of Personality Assessment, Rorschachiana, and the Therapeutic Assessment Bibliography. Publication volume increased steadily across decades. Exner's Comprehensive System was the most frequently used coding system, followed by the School of Paris and, more recently, R-PAS. Strong associations emerged between coding systems and language of publication: CS and R-PAS articles were published almost exclusively in English, whereas School of Paris contributions appeared predominantly in French. R-PAS case studies were more often published in higher-ranked journals, whereas School of Paris contributions appeared more frequently in non-indexed journals. Most case reports focused on children, adolescents, and young adults, although demographic variables such as ethnicity and cultural background were rarely reported. The Rorschach was used primarily in clinical settings, commonly within multimethod assessments integrating psychostructural and psychodynamic perspectives. Reporting transparency varied considerably, highlighting the need for clearer reporting standards and greater openness in future Rorschach case study publications.
Death by suicide is a global problem. Indeed, it is one of the leading causes of death in young people, and risk factors for suicide have continued to increase in recent years. Although interventions have been a primary focus of researchers and clinicians, research has also addressed the accurate assessment of risk for suicide. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 3 (MMPI-3), the most recent version of the MMPI family of instruments, is one of the most widely used psychological assessments in a multitude of settings. The current study examined the ability of the Suicidal/Death Ideation (SUI) scale on the MMPI-3 to classify the level of suicide risk as determined clinically, using a semi-structured clinical interview associated with the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide. Our results, if corroborated by future studies in higher-acuity settings, may lead to further interpretive statements at higher levels of elevation on the SUI scale.
Body perception refers to the capacity to perceive internal and external bodily stimuli via brain somatosensory processing. Research on body perception has focused on specific dimensions rather than in a multidimensional way. Body perception levels were assessed in 120 adults through two self-reported questionnaires. Some domains of self-reported body perception (body awareness, public consciousness, body competence) were notably affected by age and sex. Subsequently, sensitivity to exteroceptive and interoceptive stimuli was assessed in the 55 participants with higher and lower body perception. Self-reported body perception was associated with pain sensitivity, but not to interoception. Individuals with high body perception exhibited higher pain sensitivity. Body awareness, a subdimension of the Scale of Body Connection, was a key domain distinguishing individual with high versus low body perception. An additional analysis of tactile somatosensory event-related potentials (SEPs) was conducted in the 42 participants with higher and lower body awareness. Individuals with heightened body awareness displayed increased amplitudes in SEPs associated with attention processes. In conclusion, body awareness appears to be an essential element for exploring body perception and its connections with physiological mechanisms. Evaluating body awareness in clinical environments would be relevant for recognizing dysfunctional body perception and creating modulatory interventions.
The Strengths Knowledge Scale (SKS) and the Strengths Use Scale (SUS) are the most widely used instruments to measure strengths knowledge and strengths use, yet their psychometric properties have not been examined in the general Spanish population and the factor structure of the SUS remains inconclusive. This study examines the factor structure, reliability, construct validity, and gender invariance of both scales in 574 Spanish adults (M = 33.35, SD = 14.89). Exploratory Graph Analysis (EGA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and measurement invariance analyses were conducted. A unidimensional structure was supported for both scales, although the SUS required correlated residuals between five item pairs to achieve adequate fit. Both scales showed good reliability. Strengths knowledge and strengths use were positively associated with emotional, psychological, and social well-being, while only strengths knowledge was additionally associated with lower anxious and depressive symptomatology. Both scales demonstrated scalar gender invariance. These findings support the psychometric adequacy of the use of the SKS and SUS in the Spanish general population.
Particularism-bending rules to help one's friends and relations-is a morally ambiguous form of corruption that, unlike bribery, might be justified by virtues of loyalty and care. To test whether they involve distinct moral vulnerabilities, we developed a 16-item Particularism vs. Bribery Tolerance Scale (PBTS) using lay input from Chinese populations, Rasch modeling, and Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM). Two pilot studies (N = 91; N = 114) in Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland generated topic-matched scenarios of either particularism or bribery. In Study 1 (N = 499), eight pairs of scenarios were selected based on topic coverage, Rasch fit indices, and similar item functioning between Hong Kong and mainland Chinese participants. In Study 2 (N = 991), BSEM analyses supported the scale's two-factor structure, partial scalar invariance across regions, and convergent and discriminant validity. Critically, when controlling for shared variance, particularism tolerance was uniquely associated with moral excuse-making (high Moral Disengagement and low Rule Orientation) and not with virtues. In contrast, bribery tolerance was negatively related to caring virtues (Reciprocal Filial Piety and Warm virtues) and positively related to Authoritarian Filial Piety. The PBTS provides a psychometrically sound tool for investigating distinct moral motivations associated with bribery vs. particularism.
This article introduces configurational comparative methods (CCMs), such as qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) and coincidence analysis (CNA), as valuable tools for advancing personality assessment research. Unlike traditional variable-centered approaches, CCMs focus on configurations of indicators that are necessary or sufficient for specific outcomes, aligning more closely with clinical reasoning and idiographic case formulation. Drawing on principles like equifinality and multifinality, CCMs address the complexity and heterogeneity of psychological functioning, particularly in clinical populations. An empirical example using Rorschach and Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) data from a sample of university students illustrates how CNA can identify distinct combinations of indicators linked to depressive symptomatology in college students. The analysis highlights interpretive asymmetries, showing that the presence of specific Rorschach markers yields clearer inferences than their absence. While CCMs involve challenges such as data calibration and model ambiguity, they offer a unique capacity to integrate quantitative and qualitative findings. As a complement to variable- and person-centered methods, configurational approaches may help assessment researchers formulate and test clinically interpretable hypotheses about patterns of indicators. The paper argues for greater adoption of these methods to better capture the complexity of personality and psychopathology.
Defense mechanisms are relevant transdiagnostic markers for adaptive and maladaptive personality functioning and psychopathology. This study investigates the factor structure, reliability and convergent and discriminant validity of the German version of the novel Defense Mechanism Rating Scales-Self Report-30 (DMRS-SR-30). Data was collected from a German community-based sample (N = 584) and a second independent sample of clinical (n = 30) and non-clinical (n = 30) participants. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the three-factor structure proposed by Prout et al. could not be replicated. Subsequent exploratory factor analysis revealed a three-factor solution (Mature, Mental-Inhibition-and-Avoidance, Immature-Depressive) with diverging item loading compared to previous findings. Correlation analyses supported the construct validity of the scale: Mature defenses showed significant negative correlations with impairment in personality functioning (assessed with the Levels of Personality Functioning Scale (LPFS): r = -0.60) and maladaptive personality traits (assessed with the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID5BF + M): r = -0.33 - -0.57). Regarding discriminative validity, the clinical group scored significantly lower on mature defense mechanisms (d = 0.64) and significantly higher on neurotic defense mechanisms (d = 0.55-0.97) compared to the non-clinical group. Implications for the German version of the DMRS-SR-30 and future research are discussed.
This study examined the psychometric properties of the widely used 6-item Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale (RTLS-6), including a modified intensity response format. The RTLS-6 is assumed to capture the aspects of emotional and social loneliness. However, the items capturing social loneliness are negatively oriented, raising concerns that the two factors of the scale may be artifactual. Across three studies (N1 = 3,079, N2 = 1,233, N3 = 500), we examined the dimensionality and Rasch-conformity of the original and two manipulated versions of the RTLS-6, featuring uniformly worded items toward loneliness and different numbers of response categories. Overall, the results support a two-factor structure of the scale, which remains robust even when wording effects are ruled out. Multidimensional, polytomous Rasch analyses suggest that a four-point intensity response format is most appropriate. In sum, the original RTLS-6 provides evidence aligning with the assumptions of the polytomous Rasch model, particularly regarding model fit, ordered thresholds, and the absence of differential item functioning across several subgroups. Accordingly, the RTLS-6 appears suitable for use as a two-dimensional scale capturing emotional and social loneliness.
This study presents the validation of a personality assessment instrument for adolescents based on the five alternative factors and 20 facets proposed in the Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire Short Form (ZKA-PQ/SF). The new instrument, named the Alternative Five Personality Inventory for Adolescents (A5PI-A), was administered to a sample of 1,472 adolescents 12 to 17 years old. Three control scales were developed: Inconsistency (INC), Positive Image Management (PIM), and Negative Image Management (NIM). The factor structure, comprising five factors and 20 facets, proved to be robust across two independent subsamples. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) analyses showed excellent goodness-of-fit indexes. Internal consistency coefficients were globally satisfactory, and 2-month test-retest reliability estimates were adequate. Correlations between self-report and parent-report versions were high. Convergent and divergent validity were examined using the JS NEO-S for adolescents, the first-order factors of the High School Personality Questionnaire, and parental ratings of adolescents' personality traits and externalizing behaviors. The results indicate a high degree of convergence between the A5PI-A factors and theoretically related external measures, as well as appropriate discriminant validity. Overall, the A5PI-A demonstrates solid psychometric properties and appears suitable for both research and applied psychological assessment in Spanish adolescent populations.
The DSM-5 Alternative Model of Personality Disorders assesses personality pathology along two criteria: Criterion A (personality functioning) and criterion B (maladaptive traits). While Criterion B assessment yields valuable insight into overall trait levels, it fails to capture how traits manifest across situations, which is particularly relevant for traits marked by high within-person variability, such as those seen in borderline personality pathology (BPP). To capture this within-person variability, the current study leverages Criterion Profile Analysis to investigate whether behavioral signatures, derived from a Situational Judgment Test (SJT) for borderline traits, can enhance the prediction of personality functioning beyond traditional trait assessment. Undergraduate students (N = 626), all situated in the developmental phase of late adolescence completed both the SJT and established self-report measures of Criterion A personality functioning and Criterion B maladaptive traits. Results showed that situation-based response patterns-especially of emotionally labile and impulsive traits-explain additional variance in Criterion A personality functioning, above and beyond mean Criterion B trait levels. These findings support the added value of integrating dynamic, context-sensitive assessments to comprehensively understand personality functioning. Implications for the further development of innovative contextualized and dynamic strategies to assess BPP vulnerabilities are discussed.
This investigation scrutinized various competing factor structures and psychometric properties for the COVID-19 version of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (COVID-19 PCL-5) to understand stress reactions to the pandemic. Participants (N = 985) completed this measure with instructions modified to exclusively refer to the COVID-19 pandemic as the stressful index event. Descriptive data showed that 76% of participants experienced at least one COVID-19 traumatic stress symptom. Confirmatory factor analysis evaluated various competing factor structures of the COVID-19 PCL-5: (a) one-factor model, (b) DSM-5 model, (c) dysphoria model, (d) dysphoric arousal model, (e) externalizing behaviors model, (f) anhedonia model, and (g) hybrid model. The factor structure exhibiting the strongest fit indexes was the hybrid model comprising seven factors: reexperiencing, avoidance, negative affect, anhedonia, externalizing behaviors, anxious arousal, and dysphoric arousal. In multiple regression analyses, six of the seven subscales from the COVID-19 PCL-5 hybrid factor structure variously predicted outcomes of depression, anxiety, stress, and coronavirus anxiety. These findings offer insights to researchers and mental health professionals for assessing, conceptualizing, and understanding the multifaceted traumatic stress symptoms attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The Hogan Development Survey (HDS) is widely used to identify personality characteristics that threaten workplace effectiveness. It is grounded in interpersonal theory and highlights the role of social motives and interaction patterns in understanding career derailment. Yet questions remain about how its scales align with predominant models of interpersonal functioning. This study evaluated the HDS scales within the interpersonal circumplex (IPC) using both interpersonal styles and interpersonal problems as reference frameworks. We applied structural summary method analyses to the 11 HDS scales and their subscales in a working adult sample, and evaluated overall strength, specificity, and angular location within circumplex space. Results indicated strong convergence for scales in the Moving Away and Moving Against clusters, which mapped onto the cold-submissive and cold-dominant quadrants of the IPC, respectively. In contrast, Moving Toward scales had weaker and less consistent placement. These findings expand the interpersonal meaning of most HDS scales and highlight their conceptual limitations. Practically, the results support the use of circumplex models to inform interpretation of HDS scales in workplace assessment and development.
Dimensional models of personality disorder (PD) may be constrained by an excessive reliance on broad domains. Research in other areas suggests that greater specificity may enhance the coverage of maladaptive traits and the prediction of clinically relevant outcomes. In a sample of 774 outpatients, we examined this possibility using the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ) across four hierarchical levels: domains, facets, subfacets, and items. First, we compared their relative ability to capture each of the 93 DSM PD criteria. Next, we evaluated their capacity, relative to DSM categories, to predict 55 clinical and life outcomes. Coverage of PD criteria increased by 40% when using facets rather than domains, 60% for subfacets, and 81% for items, with particularly large gains for Clusters A and B. Predictive accuracy also improved for many relevant outcomes including education, social support, psychopathology, substance use, violent behavior, arrests, self-harm, and suicide attempts. We suggest that finer-grained assessments, by avoiding the limitations of higher-order aggregation, can provide more comprehensive and accurate diagnoses, better-tailored interventions, and sounder theory. Although the lower regions of the hierarchy remain largely uncharted in PDs, they hold promise for realizing the full potential of dimensional psychopathology systems.
