The present study examined neurocognitive differences in visual word processing between children with reading difficulties (RD) and chronological-age-matched controls (CA) using event-related potentials (ERPs) during a lexical decision task. Participants were Grade 3 and Grade 6 children (ages 7.6-12.1 years) who were required to discriminate real words from orthographically similar pseudowords. ERP analyses focused on the N200 and N400 components, which are thought to reflect early stages of visual word processing and later processes involved in lexical access and stimulus evaluation. The results showed that the Grade 3 RD group exhibited significantly higher Ν200 amplitudes than their CA controls, suggesting less efficient early processing of the presented stimuli. However, no differences in the N200 were observed between the Grade 6 groups. Children with RD in both grades exhibited reduced N400 amplitudes compared to their counterparts, suggesting differences in the neural processes supporting word recognition. These findings contribute to a clearer understanding of the temporal dynamics of written word processing in children with RD in transparent orthographies and highlight the value of ERP measures for examining neurocognitive mechanisms underlying reading development.
Despite a strong base of scientifically supported research on dyslexia, pervasive misunderstandings continue, particularly in the United States, where state legislation, instructional practices and parent advocacy intersect in ways that influence how dyslexia is identified and treated. Historical misinterpretations about the aetiology and characteristics of dyslexia, evolving definitions of dyslexia and differing ideological beliefs about how to operationalize identifying dyslexia in schools all contribute to uncertainty surrounding what dyslexia is and is not. Misunderstandings have led to a host of fad and pseudoscientific treatments for dyslexia that are unsupported by scientifically based reading research. Misinformation about dyslexia continues to be shared by well-intentioned, but uninformed, advocates. Disinformation about dyslexia is also shared with education stakeholders for monetary gain. This article draws on scientifically based reading research to (a) illuminate current understandings and misunderstandings about dyslexia, (b) support evidence-based treatments, (c) dispel fad and pseudoscientific treatments and (d) highlight areas needing additional research.
The present study examines the role of lexico-phonological distance in shaping vocabulary acquisition within Arabic diglossia, drawing on 299 Arabic-speaking children with and without learning disabilities across Grades 1-6. Performance followed a consistent gradient: identical words were easiest; unique words hardest; cognates fell between. This hierarchy held across both receptive and expressive tasks and remained stable over development; the Grade × Word Type interaction was non-significant, indicating that distance-related constraints remain stable with schooling. More telling was the Group × Word Type interaction: the performance gap between typically developing (TD) and learning-disabled (LD) children widened disproportionately for unique words, where the demands of representational construction meet reduced phonological processing resources. A modality asymmetry further qualified the picture: expressive vocabulary proved more sensitive to diglossic distance than receptive vocabulary, consistent with the heavier retrieval demands production places on underspecified representations. Theoretically, the findings are interpreted within MAWRID, which treats linguistic distance as a constraint on representational quality and the Lexical Quality Hypothesis, which links representational precision to lexical access efficiency. These findings implicate lexico-phonological distance as a structural, developmentally persistent constraint on lexical acquisition in Arabic diglossia, with disproportionate consequences for children with compromised phonological resources.
Understanding the etiological and background factors associated with developmental dyslexia (DD) is crucial for effective early identification, perceptive support, informed therapist management, and differentiated teacher instruction. A retrospective, cross-sectional, and comparative research design was employed to investigate these factors in the South African population with DD using existing data from a professional academy for the assessment and diagnosis of DD. Four thousand three hundred and seventy school-aged individuals were included. Data were collected across South Africa through the academy's standardised and validated diagnostic tool. Caregiver consent and child assent for the anonymised use of data for further research were obtained before collection. Specific factors of late speech development, prior speech therapy, audiological consultations, negative emotions (anger, frustration, and diagnosed depression), and gender were investigated. Statistical analyses revealed specific significant associations between these factors and different subtypes of DD. Findings underscore the importance of noting the various etiological and background factors associated with DD subtypes, which can inform knowledgeable detection and sympathetic support in classroom settings and subsequent referral and intervention strategies.
Dyslexia is a lifelong developmental condition affecting reading, with a prevalence of approximately 5% in adulthood. A small group can partially compensate for reading difficulties and achieve effective reading skills. This study explores the characteristics of this group, comparing cognitive and reading variables with typical readers and non-compensated readers with dyslexia. The study included 101 adults: 30 without dyslexia, 21 with compensated dyslexia and 50 with non-compensated dyslexia. Cognitive and linguistic tests assessed non-verbal intelligence, working memory, phonological awareness, naming speed, verbal fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, lexical decision, reading frequent words, infrequent words, pseudowords, simple text and technical text. Results showed that the compensated group performed similarly to the control group in semantic verbal fluency, vocabulary and word recognition accuracy. Significant differences emerged between controls, compensated and non-compensated groups in phonological awareness, low-frequency word reading and technical text reading. Semantic verbal fluency and phonological awareness strongly determined membership in the non-compensated group. Speed performance on phonological tasks predicted speed reading in the compensated group for tasks involving the phonological reading route. Individuals with compensated dyslexia appear to have partially compensated for phonological processing difficulties. Their better performance in demanding phonological awareness tasks differentiates them from the non-compensated group.
Dyslexia refers to difficulties in acquiring fluent reading in the absence of an intellectual deficit. In the current study, we addressed two controversial issues surrounding this disorder. Firstly, the hypothesis of an implicit learning impairment that could contribute to the development of dyslexia, and secondly, the need to distinguish reading difficulties according to IQ, the so-called discrepancy definition between reading ability and expected ability. Of relevance, it has been suggested that implicit learning is relatively independent of IQ in comparison to explicit/strategic learning. Consequently, we compared implicit sequence learning in children (8-9 years old) with dyslexia, poor readers associated with low intellectual functioning (LIF), and typically developing children (TD). Both the Dyslexia and LIF groups learned less than the TD group. Therefore, the Dyslexia group's performance supports the hypothesis of an implicit learning deficit in this population. However, the poor learning shown by the LIF group challenges the necessity of a discrepancy definition for dyslexia (poor reading despite average IQ). This paper argues that implicit learning may influence the severity of reading difficulties rather than act as a causal factor and highlights the need for further research on the usefulness of distinguishing reading difficulties based on LIF.
This study investigates cognitive-linguistic predictors of reading comprehension (RC) in Hebrew-speaking children with reading difficulties (RD). Hebrew's dual orthographic system including vowelized (shallow) and unvowelized (deep) scripts offers a valuable context for examining how cognitive-linguistic predictors differentially support reading across levels of orthographic transparency. A cross-sectional design was used with Grade 3 children with RD, utilising Fisher's Z-tests to identify significant differences in the strength of correlations between predictors and RC across scripts as well as multilevel modelling (MLM) to clarify the unique contribution of each predictor within each orthographic context. Results indicate that PA showed a stronger contribution to RC in the vowelized script, whereas RAN, vocabulary, and unvowelized word reading efficiency were stronger predictors in the unvowelized script. Cognitive flexibility was associated with RC in both scripts based on Pearson correlations, but MLM indicated a significant contribution only in the unvowelized script. These findings highlight the importance of considering orthographic depth when evaluating the cognitive-linguistic underpinnings of reading and offer script-specific insights that may inform assessment practices and intervention planning for children with RD.
Students with dyslexia may produce shorter written texts with poorer content and less complex language than peers, but it remains unclear whether such differences reflect increased writing effort associated with dyslexia or co-occurring non-phonological language difficulties. Therefore, this study compared oral and written discourse skills in Swedish adolescents (11-16 years old) with dyslexia (n = 16) and typical development (n = 37). Each participant explained a sport or game of their choice-first orally and, on a later occasion, in writing. Samples were analysed for productivity, syntactic complexity, linguistic and spelling accuracy and content. No significant group differences were found in either task apart from spelling. Across groups oral samples had higher linguistic accuracy, more words and more content than written samples. The results indicate that the spelling and decoding abilities that characterise dyslexia are not associated with poorer content, productivity, complexity or accuracy of written or oral samples and highlight the importance of a thorough oral language evaluation when students present with written language difficulties beyond spelling. Future studies should compare discourse skills in adolescents with dyslexia only, dyslexia with co-occurring developmental language disorder/DLD and DLD only, to further investigate the role of non-phonological language skills in oral and written discourse production.
Dyslexia is a common learning disability affecting language processing and literacy acquisition. In China, although prevalence rates are comparable to Western countries, awareness among teachers remains limited. Teachers are key to the early identification and support of students with dyslexia, yet many feel unprepared or hold misconceptions about the condition. This quantitative survey included 909 mainstream primary and secondary school teachers from Guangdong Province, China. A structured questionnaire assessed teachers' knowledge of developmental dyslexia, attitudes toward affected students and self-efficacy in supporting them. Teachers generally lacked sufficient knowledge of dyslexia and held notable misconceptions about its causes and interventions. Many expressed uncertainty about their ability to support students with dyslexia and showed ambivalent attitudes regarding these students' potential for improvement. Correlation and regression analyses indicated that teachers' knowledge and attitudes were significantly associated with and positively predicted their self-efficacy in teaching students with dyslexia. These findings reveal significant gaps in teachers' knowledge and confidence related to dyslexia, which may hinder effective inclusive education. The results highlight the need for targeted teacher training and professional development to address misconceptions, foster positive attitudes and enhance self-efficacy, ultimately improving support for students with dyslexia in mainstream classrooms.
We examined how the relation between serial and discrete reading/naming rate reveals cognitive processes that underlie reading fluency success and failure. Our sample included 87 children scoring above the 35th percentile (fluent readers) and 36 scoring below the 16th percentile (dysfluent readers) on a word-reading fluency test. All children were in Grade 3 and had adequate reading accuracy (standard score above the 25th percentile). The experimental tasks included serial and discrete reading of one-syllable, high-frequency words and serial and discrete digit naming. The results showed that all children performed better in the serial than the discrete naming/reading tasks. The fluent readers outperformed the dysfluent readers in all tasks. Moreover, among the fluent readers, serial reading was best predicted by serial naming. In contrast, serial reading was best predicted by discrete word reading among the dysfluent readers. Overall, the findings indicate that among readers with adequate accuracy, differences in fluency are associated with whether multiword reading aligns more strongly with serial naming or with individual word recognition, suggesting that dysfluent performance may reflect greater reliance on item-by-item processing and reduced efficiency in coordinating processing across successive words.
Dyslexia can negatively affect attitudes such as self-concept, emotions and coping. Prior research has mainly focused on global academic self-concept and negative emotions, with limited focus on specific reading- and spelling-related self-concept, positive emotions and coping strategies. We examined the reading- and spelling-related attitudes of primary school students with (n = 90) and without (n = 1411) formally diagnosed dyslexia. Students were randomly assigned to fill out the Reading Attitudes Scales (n = 753) or the Spelling Attitudes Scales (n = 748), with which reading-/spelling-related self-concept, negative and positive emotions and (mal-)adaptive coping strategies were assessed. Findings showed that the attitudes of students with dyslexia towards reading and spelling differed from their peers without dyslexia. Students with dyslexia reported lower reading and spelling self-concept and less enjoyment of reading and spelling. For other attitudes, the patterns of findings diverged. For reading, students with dyslexia reported more anxiety and shame and more maladaptive coping than students without dyslexia. For spelling, students with dyslexia reported more worrying and rumination and support seeking. These findings call for more research into reading- and spelling-related attitudes and for integration of this information into diagnosis and intervention.
Despite the high co-occurrence of dyslexia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia is undertreated in children with ADHD. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether standard intervention for dyslexia is as effective for children with co-occurring ADHD and dyslexia as for those with dyslexia only. Children with co-occurring ADHD and dyslexia (n = 16), and with dyslexia only (n = 16) received a phonics-based intervention for dyslexia. Reading and spelling skills were tested at the start and at the end of intervention. Bayesian repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed that children in the co-occurring ADHD and dyslexia group had, on average, poorer levels of reading and spelling proficiency at the baseline. Intervention was equally effective in children with ADHD and dyslexia as it was in those with dyslexia only for reading fluency. For spelling, our results suggested stronger gains in the ADHD and dyslexia group than in the dyslexia only group. These results suggest that the effectiveness of intervention for dyslexia was not negatively affected by the presence of co-occurring ADHD.
The impact of fluency and comprehension on mathematical word problem solving is explored using data on fifth-graders who took part in the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS). The Multiple Deficit Model (MDM) suggests that the impact of fluency and comprehension on mathematical word problem solving should be the same for students with and without dyslexia, even if they are at different levels in reading and mathematics. This study shows that students with poor fluency or comprehension score lower in word problems than typical readers. For all students with reading difficulties, the impact of fluency on mathematical performance is less than it is for typical readers. For students with deficits in either comprehension or fluency alone, the impact of comprehension on word problem solving is the same as for typical readers. But the impact of comprehension is less if the students are weak in both fluency and comprehension, which, according to the MDM, suggests the presence of additional or different underlying cognitive deficits. While students with poor fluency can compensate for this deficit with reading comprehension, students with poor comprehension cannot compensate with fluency. Comprehension has a larger impact on mathematical word problem solving than fluency.
Growing evidence indicates that people with dyslexia have executive function deficits. The current study used a random generation task as a novel way to investigate executive function in adults with dyslexia. Participants (total N = 54) were asked to produce an unpredictable sequence of 100 digits verbally. Over the course of the task, the dyslexia group's performance improved gradually, while the control group's performance remained stable. An analysis by 25-digit quartiles showed that the group with dyslexia performed better in the middle to end of the task when compared with their performance earlier in the task. This result suggests that the dyslexia group initially struggled with the executive demands due to task novelty and difficulties with instantiating appropriate strategies. Over time, the group with dyslexia improved and performed better than the group without dyslexia by the end of the task. These initial difficulties are suggestive of dyslexia-related Supervisory Attentional System (SAS) dysfunction, with the SAS in dyslexia progressively operating more smoothly in its continuous monitoring and control of responses. As well as contributing to theoretical discussions about the role of executive function in dyslexia, the results have implications for supporting people with dyslexia when encountering new tasks.
Recent research suggests that dyslexia involves not only reading difficulties but also deficits in working memory, attention, language, and information processing. This study examined the role of auditory attention in the comprehension of syntactically complex sentences in children with dyslexia. Participants completed an auditory language comprehension test and an auditory sustained attention task. Results showed that the dyslexic group scored lower than controls on both tasks, indicating weaker auditory attention and comprehension. They gave fewer correct answers and exhibited longer reaction times, particularly as syntactic complexity increased. Dyslexic individuals also made more errors and required more time to respond, suggesting impairments in auditory language processing, likely linked to attention deficits. While increased syntactic complexity reduced performance in both groups, the dyslexic group consistently demonstrated more pronounced difficulties than their typical peers did. These findings highlight that auditory attention and syntactic complexity significantly affect sentence comprehension in children with dyslexia. The results suggest that comprehension challenges in dyslexia are not solely due to reading limitations but also involve broader cognitive processing issues. Insights into specific sentence structures and processing delays can inform the development of more sensitive diagnostic tools and targeted interventions for assessing and supporting language comprehension in dyslexic populations.
This study investigates whether a Set-for-Variability (SfV) reading intervention improves irregular word reading and induces neural changes in the N400, specifically earlier onset latency and increased negative amplitude in incongruent conditions, among children with persistent word reading difficulties (RD). A pre-registered randomised control trial (RCT) was conducted with 30 children (average age: 9 years). Over 10 weeks, participants completed a 15-h online reading program. The SfV group focused on phoneme variation in decoding both regular and exception words, while the Current Best Practices (CBP) group received synthetic phonics and sight word instruction. Pre- and post-test reading ability and N400 event-related potentials (ERPs) were collected. Post-test results revealed that the SfV group achieved greater gains than the CBP group in irregular word reading, oral SfV, and increased N400 amplitude in the incongruent condition, indicating improved lexical-semantic processing. These behavioural and neural gains suggest that the SfV intervention improved children's ability to resolve print-sound inconsistencies and supported more efficient lexical access.
Inconsistencies in the definition and diagnosis of dyslexia continue to impede research, assessment, and intervention. This paper, authored by members of the UK Specific Learning Difficulties Network, critically examines a recent effort to establish a consensus definition and guidance for assessment and intervention for dyslexia, which involved 58 experts from academia, practice and lived experience. The resulting framework offers a developmental, multifactorial and continuum-based perspective. It expands on prevailing definitions by highlighting the influence of multiple genetic, environmental and cognitive factors, as well as developmental changes in dyslexia profiles. However, unresolved issues remain, including ambiguity around prevalence and the role of general cognitive functioning, and a lack of clear guidance for educators. The definition also lacks clarity on assessment and intervention, especially in global contexts where teaching practice may be highly variable. Co-occurrence with language and mathematics difficulties is acknowledged but underexplored, limiting implications for practice. Whilst the Delphi method provides useful consensus, we also reflect on its limitations, including potential bias in the composition of the panel. Overall, the framework is a valuable step forward, but unresolved issues remain both from a research perspective and in terms of practical implementation.
Holden et al. (2025) conducted a Delphi study to establish consensus on how to define, identify, and assess dyslexia, with the definitional component primarily reported by Carroll et al. (2025). Although Holden et al. aim to provide guidance for practitioners, we have concerns about the study's methodology, the reinforcement of IQ testing and discrepancy-based approaches, a focus on cognitive processing difficulties, and an over-reliance on clinical judgement. We argue that their approach ultimately complicates rather than clarifies dyslexia assessment and introduces barriers to equitable identification and intervention. Instead, we advocate for an approach that prioritises direct evaluation of word reading accuracy and fluency difficulties, eliminating reliance on cognitive assessments, family history, and response to instruction as diagnostic criteria.
Dyslexia, impacting children's reading skills, prompts families to seek cost-effective neurofeedback therapy solutions. Utilising machine learning, we identified predictive factors for dyslexia classification. Employing advanced techniques, we gathered 14-channel Quantitative Electroencephalography (QEEG) data from 200 participants, achieving 99.6% dyslexic classification accuracy through cross-validation. During validation, 48% of dyslexic children's sessions were consistently classified as normal, with a 95% confidence interval of 47.31 to 48.68. Focusing on individuals consistently diagnosed with dyslexia during therapy, we found that dyslexic individuals exhibited higher theta values and lower beta1 values compared to typically developing children. This study pioneers machine learning in predicting dyslexia classification factors, offering valuable insights for families considering neurofeedback therapy investment.
This qualitative study examines the writing processes of four students (aged 10-12) with severe dyslexia in an educational context, using Hayes and Berninger's (2014) writing process model as the theoretical framework. The participants attended a 7-week instructional program focusing on speech-to-text (STT). Their writing processes were examined through screencasts of verbal protocols during writing with reading and writing technology (RWT), with a particular focus on STT. The transcribed screencasts were coded and analysed. Our analysis shows that although no conventional spelling errors were found, other technology-based errors occurred. The most frequent were misrecognition of single words and omission of words or parts of sentences. Three categories of technology-based errors were identified: homophonic or nearly homophonic words, incorrect suffix/morpheme errors and compound words. The analysis also reveals that the evaluation process consists of three parts: correction, low-level revision and high-level revision. This means that an additional correction process is required because of technology-based errors. Consequently, the recognition accuracy of STT technology appears to influence writing flow and working memory load during technology-based writing.
