Understanding and modulating myofibrillar protein (MP) gelation is essential for the rational design of processed meat products. This study investigated the effects of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by pea protein (PP) and different ionic celluloses, cationic (PQC), non-ionic (HPMC), and anionic (CMC), on the gel properties and underlying mechanisms of MP composite gels. HIPPEs were incorporated into MP gels at a 30% substitution level (w/w, based on total gel formulation), and their effects on water retention, texture and color, physicochemical properties, rheological behavior, secondary structure, water distribution, and microstructure were systematically evaluated. Results indicated that all HIPPEs significantly improved gel properties, with PP-PQC HIPPEs exhibiting the most pronounced enhancements: smallest particle size, highest water-holding capacity (WHC), superior texture, and most compact gel network. The incorporation of HIPPEs promoted protein unfolding, increased surface hydrophobicity, facilitated the conversion of α-helices to β-sheets, and encouraged disulfide bond formation, leading to a denser and more uniform gel structure. These findings demonstrate that ionic cellulose-based HIPPEs, especially those stabilized by cationic cellulose, can effectively modulate MP gelation, offering a promising strategy for developing high-quality, reduced-fat meat products.
Ready-to-eat emulsified meat products, particularly vacuum-packed sausages, occupy a prominent niche in the meat market owing to their portability, flavor stability, and extended shelf life. Among their quality attributes, color plays an essential role in consumer acceptance and purchasing intent. Nevertheless, it is susceptible to discoloration and browning during shelf life, which can severely compromise their sensory quality and market competitiveness. This review systematically elucidates the main mechanisms of color deterioration in sausages with endogenous natural pigments and those with exogenous colorants. Key degradation pathways include nitrosomyoglobin photo-oxidation, photo/thermal degradation of exogenous colorants, and free-radical generation resulting from lipid oxidation. Several influencing factors and targeted preservation strategies are also discussed and presented. Four-pronged color stabilization framework is proposed including raw material control, process optimization, ingredient synergy, and packaging barrier design. Lastly, future trends such as microbial-based color stabilization, multi-factor coupling models, and whole-chain quality control are highlighted, offering references for researches and industrial applications.
Ethylcellulose (EC)-based oleogels offer a promising alternative to animal fats, yet their lower oxidative stability remains a challenge. In order to explore the effects of polyphenols on the structure, physicochemical properties, and oxidative stability of oleogels, EC-based oleogels loading ferulic acid (FA), rosemary extract (RE), and resveratrol (RES) at concentrations of 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5% were prepared. Meanwhile, RES-loaded oleogel was employed as a pork fat replacer to prepare Harbin red sausage at substitution levels of 40% and 80% in this study. X-ray diffractometer, infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analyses revealed that the addition of polyphenols promoted a more compact and stable network microstructure of the oleogels, probably driven by physical interactions. All polyphenols, especially FA, significantly decreased the lightness of the oleogels. Texture and rheological results demonstrated that polyphenols improved mechanical strength and viscoelasticity, polyphenols-loaded oleogels also possessed higher oil binding capacity (OBC). The oleogels had considerable antioxidant activity after loaded with polyphenols. Meanwhile, the oxidative stability of oleogels was significantly improved by all three polyphenols in a concentration-dependent manner. Notably, RES was most effective in retarding primary oxidation, while FA showed superior suppression of secondary oxidation products. The substitution with RES (0.3%)-loaded oleogel decreased the lightness and hardness of sausage, partially alleviated hardness loss. E-nose distinguished sausages with different substitution ratios, while E-tongue showed no clear separation among groups. These findings demonstrate that polyphenols can enhance the mechanical strength, OBC, and oxidative stability of EC-based oleogels, while also noting trade-offs in color and texture.
Volatile flavor formation in fermented meat products is governed by complex interactions among raw materials, microbial metabolism, proteolysis, lipid oxidation, amino acid conversion, processing conditions, and ripening. These processes generate diverse volatile compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, esters, and sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds, which collectively determine product aroma and sensory quality. However, their dynamic, nonlinear, and multi-factorial nature makes accurate prediction and mechanism interpretation challenging using conventional statistical approaches alone. This review summarizes the major volatile compounds, formation pathways, and key factors affecting flavor development in fermented meat products. It further discusses the data foundations required for artificial intelligence-based modeling, including physicochemical indices, process parameters, volatile profiles, electronic nose and GC-IMS fingerprints, sensory evaluation, microbiome, and multi-omics data. The potential applications of machine learning, deep learning, time-series modeling, multi-omics integration, and explainable AI are highlighted for flavor prediction, maturity identification, key factor screening, sensory perception prediction, and mechanism analysis. Future studies should focus on standardized databases, external validation, and interpretable, transferable multimodal models to support precise flavor regulation and intelligent quality control in fermented meat products.
This study evaluated the dietary effect of complete substitution (32%) of maize grain with a self-fermented agro-waste mix (SFAWM) composed of apple pomace, spent mushroom residue, and wheat straw in male Gaddi goats. The study included two treatments viz. Control and SFAWM32 with six animals (3-4 months) per treatment (n = 6). After feeding for 150 days, goats were slaughtered for the determination of carcass yield, meat physico-chemical traits and fatty acid composition. Replacing maize with SFAWM32 reduced daily dry matter intake by 17.8% with comparable average daily gain, resulting in an improved feed conversion ratio by 22.4% compared with the Control group (P < 0.05). Linear body measurements and carcass characteristics were not significantly affected by the treatment. Meat from animals fed SFAWM32 exhibited improved tenderness (P < 0.001), greater redness value (a*) (P < 0.001), and lower thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance values (P = 0.023) compared with the Control group. The fatty acid profile showed a significant reduction in total and selected saturated fatty acids, accompanied by significantly greater levels of n-3 PUFA, resulting in a more favourable n-6/n-3 ratio. Meat from the SFAWM32 group also showed increased (P < 0.001) moisture content compared with the Control group. Results demonstrate that self-fermented agro-waste mix at 32% maize grain replacement level in goat diet improved FCR, tenderness, a*, oxidative stability, and n-3 PUFA content of meat. The approach offered an effective and sustainable strategy to address food-feed competition with improvement in meat nutritional value and oxidative stability.
This study investigated the quality and microbial dynamics of vacuum-packaged cooked pork sausages reformulated by partially replacing meat protein (13%) with cooked chickpea paste and incorporating powdered banana pseudostem (BPS; 0%-0.4%) as a fibre source. Four sausages: Control (CON), CCP without BPS (CCP-0), and CCP with low (0.2%) or high (0.4%) BPS (CCP-BL and CCP-BH) were analysed over 20 days of refrigerated vacuum storage (3-7 °C). Composition, liquid retention, texture profile, colour, and microbial counts were evaluated. High-resolution shotgun metagenomics was applied to characterize bacterial and fungal dynamics. Composition and cooking yield remained unaffected by the reformulations (p > 0.05). However, substituting meat with cooked chickpea increased centrifugation loss (2 percentage points) and decreased hardness (2-3N), chewiness (∼3 N), and elasticity (0.04-0.05 units). Incorporating BPS increased initial product pH (up to 0.1 units), while decreasing lightness (up to 4 units). Initial total mesophilic bacterial counts were about 1 Log CFU/g higher in sausages with BPS and reached levels near 7 Log CFU/g across all batches by day 10. Adding chickpea supported the growth and survival of Enterobacteriaceae during storage. Shotgun metagenomics revealed that Brochothrix thermosphacta dominated the spoilage microbiota in CON and CCP-0 batches, exceeding 80% relative abundance by day 20. Conversely, BPS inclusion introduces plant-associated taxa (Klebsiella michiganensis and Pantoea rwandensis), significantly elevating alpha diversity and reducing B. thermosphacta percentage (< 20% relative abundance). While cooked chickpeas alter sausage textural characteristics, BPS serves as a functional fibre that modulates vacuum-packaged spoilage ecology.
Nitrite is a widely used additive in processed meat products, but its excessive accumulation raises serious safety concerns due to the formation of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines. Lactic acid bacteria as starter cultures have been explored for nitrite removal, but their efficiency is often limited under nitrite stress. In this study, to improve nitrite degradation performance, stepwise adaptive evolution of Pediococcus pentosaceus (P. pentosaceus) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides (L. mesenteroides) under nitrite stress was conducted followed by nitrite removal test via in vitro and in fermented sausages. Results showed that the acclimated strains of Pediococcus pentosaceus exhibited markedly improved nitrite removal efficiency, achieving near-complete elimination (99.2% removal of 50 mg/L NaNO2) within 24 h in vitro and significantly accelerated nitrite reduction (77.4% removal of 150 mg/kg NaNO2 at 7th day) during sausage fermentation compared with the original strains. Microbial community analysis indicated that the adapted culture maintained ecological competitiveness while inhibiting the detrimental Acinetobacter. Transcriptomic profiling between the original and acclimated strains of P. pentosaceus further revealed extensive cellular reprogramming, with differential expression of genes primarily involved in transmembrane transport, energy metabolism, and macromolecular repair. Notably, transport-related systems and ATP synthesis pathways were upregulated, indicating enhanced detoxification capacity and energy supply, whereas nucleotide biosynthesis was suppressed, suggesting strategic resource reallocation under stress conditions. These findings demonstrated that adaptive evolution effectively enhances microbial functionality through coordinated metabolic regulation. This work not only provides mechanistic insights into microbial nitrite metabolism but also offers a feasible strategy for developing safer and more sustainable fermented meat products with reduced additive reliance.
This study evaluated the impact of dietary supplementation with antioxidants (AO) and flavouring prototypes based on capsicum (CA), acorn (AC), and olive (OL) on the volatile profile of pork. Two trials were conducted. Trial 1 served as a preliminary screening to evaluate samples of longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) of 32 barrows fed with diets containing different levels of CA, AC, and OL. Results showed that dietary treatments significantly affected the abundance of seven volatile compounds, particularly long-chain aldehydes, while the fatty acid profile remained unaffected. Trial 2 consisted of a 2 × 3 × 2 factorial design evaluating AO supplementation (with and without AO), dietary flavouring prototypes (without, AC, and AC + OL), and sex (gilts vs. barrows), where LTL samples from 36 barrows and 36 gilts were evaluated. A total of 59 volatile compounds were identified. AC supplementation resulted in significantly lower levels of long-chain aldehydes and several hydrocarbons. Dietary supplementation with AC + OL showed a significantly higher abundance of (Z)-2-heptenal and 2-n-butylfuran. While antioxidant supplementation had only marginal effects on the volatile profile, barrows showed significantly higher levels of lipid oxidation-derived volatiles, including aldehydes and ketones, compared to gilts. Significant interactions among AO, dietary flavouring prototypes and sex were observed for specific hydrocarbons, especially observed with AC. In conclusion, dietary acorn flavouring prototype supplementation, either alone or with an olive flavouring prototype, has the potential to modulate the volatile profile of pork. Further sensory analysis is required to validate the organoleptic impact of these chemical variations.
This study evaluated the effects of artichoke bracts silage (ABS) in the finishing diet of beef steers on the microbiological profile, biogenic amines, volatile compounds, and sensory characteristics of dry-aged beef. Forty-eight Holstein × Belgian Blue steers were assigned to three diets: control with wheat straw (C), or diets in which wheat straw was partially replaced with 50 g/kg DM (S1) or 100 g/kg DM (S2) ABS. After 60 days of feeding, bone-in loins were collected and dry-aged for 42 days at 2 °C, 82% relative humidity, and 0.4 m/s air velocity. Longissimus lumborum samples were analyzed at 0, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 days. Total mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacterial counts were not affected by diet. Meat from ABS-fed steers showed lower total biogenic amine content from day 28 onward, lower histamine and putrescine concentrations, and delayed cadaverine appearance compared with control meat. Several volatile compounds related to lipid oxidation, amino acid degradation, and dry-aging biochemical development, including aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and aliphatic hydrocarbons, were higher in control samples than in ABS meat. Dry aging improved tenderness and meaty flavor, whereas control meat developed higher unpleasant odor and taste scores at advanced aging times. Overall sensory appreciation was unaffected by diet. These findings suggest that dietary ABS may modulate biochemical and sensory changes during prolonged dry aging without impairing the overall sensory profile of beef.
Tenderness and nutritional quality are critical determinants of meat value and consumer acceptance. This review discusses applications of plant cysteine proteases primarily for improving meat texture, with emphasis on their effects on myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and connective tissue proteins. Factors governing artificial meat tenderization, including enzyme properties, processing conditions, and delivery methods, are evaluated. The review also examines how protease pretreatment influences in vitro protein digestion and the release of bioactive peptides. Controlled application of plant cysteine proteases can improve meat texture and modify digestive and peptide-release characteristics, although enzyme type, dose, treatment conditions, sensory quality, and physiological validation must be considered for practical implementation.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) in dry-cured sausages should be controlled to reduce consumer exposure. The use of microorganisms and plants has been proposed as the most promising strategy to diminish OTA accumulation in them. The ability of Debaryomyces hansenii (Dh) and rosemary-based treatments to control the OTA contamination due to the co-occurrence of Penicillium nordicum and Aspergillus westerdijkiae in "chorizo" and "salchichón" was assessed. OTA accumulation on the surface was generally higher in "salchichón" than in "chorizo", with the highest OTA reduction being achieved in the first matrix. Specifically, Dh, rosemary essential oil (REO), casing macerated with rosemary (CMR), and the combination Dh + CMR reduced OTA levels by up to 51.44% in "salchichón", whilst REO and its combination with Dh surprisingly increased OTA production in "chorizo" (576.48% and 14,587.50%, respectively). Dh combined with CMR was the only antiochratoxigenic strategy that was consistently effective in both matrices. Although the amount of OTA detected internally was small compared with that on the surface, the stimulation of OTA observed in the presence of certain biopreservatives poses a potential risk to food safety. Besides, the biocontrol strategies did not cause undesirable changes in the ripening related parameters (pH and water activity) or in the development of the fungal population in "chorizo" and "salchichón". The adaptation of P. nordicum to ripening conditions was more effective than that of A. westerdijkiae. Thus, this work supports the use of D. hansenii FHSCC 253H and rosemary leaves as biocontrol agents for mitigating OTA contamination in "chorizo" and "salchichón".
Bioactive peptides generated from meat proteins, fermented meat products, and slaughter by-products have attracted increasing attention as functional molecules for improving meat quality and preservation. In meat systems, peptides can be produced through endogenous postmortem proteolysis, microbial fermentation, gastrointestinal digestion, or controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of underutilized animal by-products. These peptides are closely associated with key meat science endpoints, including postmortem tenderization, oxidative stability, color retention, flavor development, microbial inhibition, and the valorization of processing by-products. However, although high-resolution peptidomics has greatly expanded the identification of meat-derived peptide sequences, their translation into practical meat applications remains limited by matrix interactions, processing stability, sensory constraints, safety concerns, and insufficient validation in real meat systems. This review synthesizes recent advances in meat-related peptidomics and computational screening, including sequence-based prediction, machine learning, molecular docking, molecular dynamics, stability assessment, and safety-oriented filtering. Particular attention is given to how these approaches can prioritize peptides with antioxidant, antimicrobial, flavor-modulating, and preservation-related functions under meat-specific technological constraints. By integrating peptide generation pathways, mass spectrometry-based identification, in silico prioritization, and meat quality endpoints, this review proposes a stage-gated framework for translating meat-derived bioactive peptides from discovery to application. Future research should strengthen matrix-specific validation, standardized peptidomic reporting, and safety assessment to support the use of bioactive peptides in meat quality improvement, clean-label preservation, and circular utilization of meat industry by-products.
Skeletal muscle growth is often viewed through the lens of maximal cellular energy production, with oxidative phosphorylation thought mandatory for optimal support of anabolic growth processes. However, efficient lean tissue accretion is also subjected to the economy of carbon sequestration, as oxidative metabolism irreversibly releases carbon as CO₂. Herein, we propose skeletal muscle in faster-growing, more efficient meat animals adopt a regulated, Warburg-like metabolism that enhances efficiency of lean tissue accretion. Drawing on evidence from long-term selection, growth promotant use, and naturally occurring gene mutations, we propose that rapid muscle growth may be facilitated by increased glycolytic capacity, selective remodeling of mitochondrial function, and improved carbon retention for biosynthetic processes. Although direct evidence linking these processes causally to lean tissue accretion remains limited, this framework integrates numerous observations reported across livestock species into a testable metabolic hypothesis. Although an absolute causality for this occurrence remains largely unexplored in skeletal muscle, this configuration mirrors core features of Warburg metabolism observed in many types of cancer cells that prioritize glycolysis in the presence of oxygen and enhance biosynthetic flux to support nucleotide synthesis and redox homeostasis. By reframing muscle growth as an issue of carbon allocation in addition to ATP production, this hypothesis integrates long-standing consistent observations in the field of muscle growth with cutting-edge concepts of metabolic reprogramming and offers a framework to interpret gains in growth efficiency alongside potential trade-offs in metabolic health, robustness, and meat quality development.
Early life development plays a crucial role in shaping skeletal muscle development in livestock offspring through fetal programming mechanisms, which refers to developmental adaptations induced by environmental and nutritional stimuli during gestation. This review synthesizes recent research on the effects of maternal nutrition during gestation and early-life nutrition on muscle development and metabolism, carcass composition, and meat quality. Key developmental processes, including myogenesis and adipogenesis, occur predominantly during prenatal life and are highly sensitive to maternal nutrient supply. Consequently, nutritional interventions during gestation, such as protein and energy supplementation, can program muscle mass, adiposity, and metabolic characteristics of skeletal muscle, ultimately influencing growth potential and carcass composition. In addition, early postnatal nutrition, particularly during the "marbling window," which extends from the late fetal-neonatal stage to approximately 250 d of age in beef cattle, may enhance intramuscular adipocyte development and increase marbling potential. These developmental adaptations are associated with changes in muscle fiber type, metabolic pathways, and energy utilization, driven by alterations during critical windows of fetal development that define muscle fiber number, adipocyte formation, and metabolic flexibility. However, although these changes often result in differences in growth performance and carcass composition, their effects on meat quality attributes remain inconsistent. Overall, the impact of maternal and early-life nutrition on final meat quality depends on its interaction with postnatal management, highlighting the importance of integrated nutritional strategies throughout the animal's life.
Galactose-α-1,3-galactose (α-Gal) is a carbohydrate epitope conjugated to glycoproteins and glycolipids and ubiquitously expressed in non-primate mammalian tissues. α-Gal has emerged as the causative antigen of alpha-gal syndrome (AGS), a delayed IgE-mediated food allergy to mammalian-derived products, including red meat. Clinical symptoms are highly variable among AGS patients and influenced by factors such as α-Gal content and structure, molecular carrier, and host-specific immune responses. Emerging evidence indicates that α-Gal content and structure may vary across tissues and product types, with higher concentrations frequently reported in organ meats and lipid-rich fractions. Additionally, α-Gal epitopes exhibit notable thermal stability, suggesting that conventional cooking and processing methods may not effectively reduce allergenicity. Current analytical approaches have improved detection and characterization of α-Gal; however, methodological standardization and functional assays linking molecular presence to clinical reactivity remain limited. Epidemiological data indicate that AGS is a globally emerging condition, with geographic variation driven by tick distribution, environmental factors, and differences in surveillance and clinical recognition. Despite increasing recognition, knowledge gaps persist regarding α-Gal occurrence in food systems, the impact of processing on allergenicity, and effective mitigation strategies. Therefore, the objective of this review is to synthesize current knowledge on the biochemical basis, immunological mechanisms, and global epidemiology of AGS, and to evaluate the occurrence, distribution, and stability of α-Gal in meat systems. In particular, meat scientists are uniquely positioned to advance understanding of α-Gal distribution, stability, and mitigation in food systems, thereby contributing to improved risk assessment and management of AGS.
This study investigated alternatives to the categorical visual pig carcass conformation scores (VCCS) to optimally complement lean meat percentage (LMP) and hot carcass weight (HCW) in describing the carcass value of slaughtered pigs. A total of 130 pig carcasses were selected and evaluated using the VCCS. Carcass measurements were then recorded, after which the left carcass half was EU-jointed and dissected into ham, loin, shoulder and belly. Of the 38 carcass measurement and dissection parameters evaluated, the ponderal index, ham index, shoulder bone content, loin bone content and the relative weight of the hindfoot and -shank were simultaneously independent of both HCW and LMP. Of these parameters, only the ham index and ponderal index showed a significant difference in the pairwise comparison between VCCS classes 4 (N = 59) and 5 (N = 55), indicating that they could serve as a replacement for the current VCCS determination.
This study elucidated the molecular mechanisms of S-nitrosylation on postmortem beef metabolism and quality based on the label-free modificomics. Varying degrees of S-nitrosylation were exogenously induced in beef semimembranosus (SM) muscle. Results indicated that a high S-nitrosylation level significantly increased beef pH and Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) while reducing centrifugal loss (P < 0.05). A total of 828 S-nitrosylated proteins and 1458 modification sites were identified, of which 114 sites on 81 proteins (DSNPs) exhibited differential modification abundance, representing an increase of 125% compared with previous proteomics studies. DSNPs were mainly involved in glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, calcium signaling, cell structure, and ferroptosis. Notably, this study provides the first evidence in postmortem muscle that S-nitrosylation regulates key ferroptosis-related proteins, including ACSL, CP, and TF, offering new insights into the link between S-nitrosylation and the ferroptosis pathway in meat. Correlation analysis demonstrated that TF was significantly negatively correlated with pH and WBSF, but positively correlated with centrifugal loss (P < 0.05). Collectively, protein S-nitrosylation critically modulates postmortem beef quality through the coordinated regulation of multiple metabolic processes. More importantly, the identification of ferroptosis as a S-nitrosylation-sensitive pathway provides a new perspective for regulating meat quality through protein post-translational modifications.
Yunnan dry-cured beef is highly regarded for its unique aroma, but the mechanisms underlying its aroma formation remain unclear. In this study, GC-MS, GC-IMS, and UHPLC-QE-MS techniques were employed to analyze dynamic changes in fatty acids (FAs), volatile compounds, and lipids during the processing of Yunnan dry-cured beef, to preliminarily characterize the potential mechanisms underlying aroma evolution. The results demonstrated that the degree of lipid oxidation (POV and TBARS) increased significantly (P < 0.05) during the processing of Yunnan dry-cured beef, while moisture content and water activity decreased significantly (P < 0.05), and protein and fat contents increased significantly (P < 0.05). A total of 48 fatty acids were identified, with unsaturated fatty acids as the predominant class. These were further categorized into 16 saturated fatty acids (SFA), 18 monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and 14 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Volatilomic analysis identified a total of 13 aroma compounds. Among these compounds, ethyl acetate, ethanol-D, 1-propanol-D, 2-butanone, and 2-butanol-D exhibited the highest relative abundances at the end of processing, and these compounds are of great significance for the formation of the characteristic aroma of dry-cured beef. Lipidomic profiling identified 2418 lipids. Phosphatidylcholine (PC), triacylglycerol (TG), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) accounted for a high proportion and represented the major lipids involved in lipid metabolism and aroma formation. This study is the first to preliminarily characterize the lipid-mediated aroma formation mechanisms in Yunnan dry-cured beef, providing a theoretical and technical basis for processing optimization and quality improvement.
