Music-based interventions have been shown to benefit autistic individuals by improving social behavior and communication, and reducing behavioral excesses (Hill et al., 2020). The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether training more discriminable notes (i.e., “C,” “E,” and “G”) would enhance the effects of equivalence-based instruction (EBI) on the acquisition of piano skills, novel piano performance (i.e., reading sheet music), novel note performance, pitch discrimination, and the maintenance of taught and untaught piano skills among autistic children. Additionally, we examined whether participants would generalize their responding to untrained notes appearing on the staff between the trained notes (i.e., “D” and “F”). The training involved simultaneous matching of auditory-visual musical stimuli in a one-to-many arrangement. When given an auditory stimulus, learners selected letters, musical notation, and piano keys. Following training, posttests were conducted to test the emergence of novel untrained relations and musical notes. Maintenance probes occurred within 1 week of the posttests. All participants demonstrated novel piano skills and scored high on maintenance probes. However, none of the participants reached mastery level on the “perfect pitch” probes, nor did they respond accurately to the untrained notes. The results suggest EBI’s efficacy in teaching and maintaining piano skills, though with notable limitations.
Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have difficulty with social interactions and communication. Thus, identifying procedures that are efficient and effective at improving communication is important. Instructive feedback (IF) is a procedure that has been found to increase communication for individuals with developmental disabilities by teaching a primary target (PT) and embedding a secondary target (ST) within the learning trial. However, different procedural configurations exist across the IF literature, which may influence its efficacy and efficiency. The purpose of this study was to compare the delivery of antecedent and consequence ST when teaching different tacts and intraverbals to a child diagnosed with ASD across multiple phases and stimulus sets. In phase 1, we compared teaching antecedent and consequence ST to no ST and found that incorporating ST resulted in better acquisition of ST compared to no ST. In phases 2 and 3, we compared only antecedent and consequence ST and showed that both conditions led to the acquisition of intraverbals; however, acquisition rates differed across conditions. Finally, in phase 3, we assessed the participant’s allocation of responding between the different ST types in a concurrent-link arrangement. The participant allocated responding more to the consequence condition, which was generally more efficient at producing ST acquisition in phases 2 and 3. Possible explanations for differences in acquisition related to when ST were delivered are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems allow individuals with vocal speech delays to meet their wants and needs. However, when signs are used as AAC, the implementers and caregivers must also learn signs. Longo et al. Behavioral Interventions, 37(3), 713–731 (2022) found that a self-study training (SST) in which adult participants observed videos paired with text was both efficacious and efficient in teaching eight component and 16 compound signs, arranged in a matrix. We systematically replicated SST, with changes to the matrix design and targets evaluated. The dependent variables were text-sign intraverbal and sign-vocal tacts for component and compound targets. Performance in a role play condition was also evaluated before and after training. SST was implemented with three adult participants using a multiple probe design across behaviors (submatrices). For the first two participants, SST of six compound, diagonal targets led to the acquisition of 30 untrained compounds and 12 component targets across modalities (i.e., text-sign intraverbals, sign-vocal tacts, listener responses) and contexts (i.e., role play). Similar results were obtained with the third participant, though acquisition of submatrix 2 was observed following intervention with submatrix 1. These results have implications for designing training to support implementers teaching sign as AAC.
Previous studies have shown that participants’ preferences for stimuli can affect the acquisition of mands and tacts. However, no studies have evaluated the effect of preference on echoics. In the current study, three preschoolers with autism were taught to echo words associated with preferred and neutral stimuli. We also conducted mand and tact probes to test for transfer of echoic responses across verbal operants. Participants demonstrated correct echoic responding under both preferred and neutral stimulus conditions, though responding met the mastery criterion sooner under the preferred condition for two of the three participants. The mand and tact probe results did not differ across conditions—tacts emerged across conditions, while mands did not. These findings extend prior research assessing the effect of preference on verbal behavior acquisition and transfer across verbal operants. We provide recommendations on the selection of stimuli for teaching echoics to children with autism.
The misconception that teaching children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) more than one language will cause delays in language acquisition could lead bilingual caregivers to not speak to their children in their heritage language. Therefore, researchers should investigate whether teaching a second language to children with ASD could hinder acquisition of communication skills. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of direct teaching of Spanish auditory-visual conditional discriminations with instructive feedback in English on the acquisition of primary targets, secondary targets, and emergent relations (i.e., Spanish and English tacts) by children with ASD. All participants’ responding met the mastery criterion for the primary targets and the inclusion of instructive feedback resulted in the acquisition of English auditory-visual conditional discriminations.
Kisamore et al. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(2), 255–278 (2011) taught typically developing preschoolers the problem-solving strategy of visual imagining to increase intraverbal categorization (e.g., “Tell me some animals”) responses. The visual imagining teaching involved showing the participants scenes with items to be emitted as intraverbals and instructing them to close their eyes, imagine the items, and state what they saw. The purpose of the current study was to modify and extend the procedures of Kisamore et al. to individuals with autism. In the context of a multiple probe design across categories with sessions conducted remotely, the participants demonstrated increases in intraverbal responses, in some cases with visual imagining teaching alone, and in some cases when also shown “scenic picture prompts” (i.e., scenes without the target items). Behavioral correlates of visual imagining were grouping responses based on trained subcategories and stating untaught items from the scenes. Future research recommendations are discussed, including conducting in-person sessions and fading the scenic picture prompts.
Over 20% of the population in the United States is bilingual, and yet limited behavior analytic research has investigated procedures that promote bilingual language acquisition. In this study, we taught two children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to tact pictures in English and their heritage language using sequential and simultaneous instruction procedures. We also evaluated the emergence of untrained bidirectional intraverbals, listener responses, and stimulus generalization. In the sequential instruction condition, the participant learned to tact items in one language before learning to tact the same items in a second language. In the simultaneous condition, the participant learned to tact items in two languages concurrently. Both participants' responding met the mastery criterion under the sequential instruction condition and the discontinuation criterion under the simultaneous instruction condition. Further, the highest percentage of correct emergent responding was demonstrated for listener behavior, followed by stimulus generalization and bidirectional intraverbals. This study provides a framework for future research to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency of instructional procedures for bilingual language acquisition in children with ASD.
People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have difficulty responding vocally with intraverbals and physically with motor imitation during conversations. Not responding with an appropriate word coupled with an absence of body language could compromise social opportunities. The literature lists scores of studies implementing human video modeling to increase skills of people with ASD but not much research has been conducted using animated video modeling (Kellems et al., 2020). This study compared human video modeling to animated videos to teach vocal intraverbal responding along with motor imitations of facial expression and body language to eight children with ASD. Seven of the eight participants acquired the target behaviors with one or both methods to some degree. Two participants demonstrated more of the target behaviors with the human video, three demonstrated more with the animated, and little difference in learning was observed for three participants. One participant only demonstrated target behaviors following the human video and another only demonstrated target behaviors following the animated video, suggesting that both methods could be effective and neither was conclusively superior.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive behavioristic conceptual analysis of acts of translation and interpretation (ATIs) by analyzing the role of historical and current context in shared meaning/understanding among parties involved in ATIs: speakers/writers, interpreters/translators, and listeners/readers. The conventional nature of verbal behavior, and the importance of and challenges inherent to ATIs are considered first. Next, B. F. Skinner’s analyses of ATIs, understanding, and meaning is summarized as a starting point for an analysis of ATIs and meaning in terms of the situations in which verbal stimuli occur. A technical definition of context is provided, and we suggest that shared meaning/understanding depends upon the extent to which the historical and current contexts in which writers/speakers and readers/listeners encounter specific topographies of verbal behavior are similar. This is then applied to ATIs, focusing on the different contextual circumstances under which translation (involving written stimuli) and interpretation (involving spoken/gestural stimuli) occur, and the implications of these for shared meaning/understanding between writers/speakers and readers/listeners in different languages in ATIs.
Healthcare professionals frequently ask individuals to use numerical rating scales to rate their pain intensity, yet individuals often find it challenging to accurately report sensations. The present study explored the efficacy of procedures to teach adults to report the intensity of tactile sensations-rough, heavy, and temperature (hot/cold)-on a numerical rating scale within a multiple baseline design across stimulus sets. The participants felt the stimuli, which were concealed from the participants' view, by inserting their hands into a stimulus box. The participants mastered the taught intensity tacts and generalized the tacts to novel body parts. One participant also generalized tacts to untaught intensities, and the other participant generalized responding to novel stimuli, untaught intensities, and untaught intensities in novel stimulus sets. These findings are discussed in the context of Skinner's analysis of how humans learn to talk about private events.
The primary purpose of the present experiment was to explore the extent to which repeated probing contributes to the establishment of incidental bidirectional naming (Inc-BiN). Whenever repetitive probes alone did not suffice to establish Inc-BiN, we investigated whether mixed-operant instuction (MOI)––the rapid rotation of operants within each of a series of trial blocks––improved Inc-BiN. Nine children with autism or language delays aged 3–6 participated. Three of nine participants were exposed to an extended-baseline condition, while the remaining six were exposed to one of two brief-baseline conditions before MOI. We used a multiple probe design across three novel stimulus sets, to isolate the effects of repeated probing. During post-MOI Inc-BiN probes, all participants across conditions demonstrated the emergence of Inc-BiN. Repetitive probes sufficed to establish Inc-BiN in two of three participants who were assigned to the extended-baseline condition, while for the third, Inc-BiN improved after MOI. In addition, we examined the extent to which the probe sequence impacted Inc-BiN skills. Three participants, P1, P2, and P3, were exposed to speaker (tacts) probes first, while the remaining six were exposed to listener probes first. During generative Inc-BiN probes, when testing speaker responses before listener responses (P1–P3), only listener responses emerged for two of them. In contrast, when testing listener before speaker responses, both repertoires were observed for three (P4, P5, and P7) of six participants. A one-month follow-up Inc-BiN probe demonstrated maintenance of listener responses for seven of eight participants, and tacts were maintained for three of them.
The research literature has revealed mixed outcomes on stimulus-stimulus pairing (SSP) as a potential procedure to promote vocalizations. In this procedure, the experimenter’s specific vocalizations are paired with the delivery of conditioned or unconditioned stimuli and it has been used to increase vocalizations in individuals with language delays. Some studies demonstrate an increase in participants’ vocalizations, while other studies demonstrate a partial or zero increase in participant’s vocalizations. The current study extends the systematic literature review conducted by Shillingsburg et al. Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 31, 215–235, (2015). We included 12 experimental studies, including published peer-reviewed studies, theses, and dissertations, from 2015 and 2024 that investigated SSP to increase vocalizations in participants with language delays. The studies were analyzed according to participants’ characteristics and specific features of the SSP procedures. A multilevel meta-analysis was conducted for a portion of the studies reviewed to calculate the effect sizes across cases and studies. Overall, we found a significant effect of the SSP procedure on increased rates of vocalizations of individuals with language delays. Directions for future research are discussed.
Rules can enable individuals to effectively bypass some of the unavoidable outcomes associated with delayed reinforcers. This exploratory study analyzes how varying levels of rule explicitness affect instructional control under immediate and delayed contingencies. Through four studies, the impact of rule explicitness on verbal antecedent control over responses was explored. The initial study established a baseline of behavior controlled by immediate contingencies for all participants. The second study introduced an implicit rule, which did not modify the behavioral patterns found in the previous study. Conversely, in the third study, an explicit rule substantially influenced behavior toward long-term contingencies for most participants. The fourth study confirmed these findings. Results show that explicit rules more effectively influence behavior, although this effect was not consistent across all participants. These preliminary results should be seen as an early step toward a deeper analysis of immediate and delayed contingencies in rule-governed behavior.
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may face challenges with reporting past behavior. Although some behavior-analytic studies have shown success with increasing these reports, the use of materials within activities that do not repeat has not been assessed (e.g., Shillingsburg et al., 2017). Thus, the purpose of the current study was to expand upon previous research (e.g., Shillingsburg et al. 2017; 2019) by utilizing novel materials within activities completed and examining the use of partial textual stimuli within an interactive task to increase reports of past behavior for one child with autism. The results showed an increase in reports of past behavior following intervention across three activities as well as an increase in varied responses.
In Verbal Behavior, Skinner (1957) defined verbal behavior as “behavior reinforced through the mediation of other persons” (p. 2) in which the delivery of reinforcement has been “conditioned precisely in order to reinforce the behavior of the speaker” (p. 225). By contrast, as part of relational frame theory (RFT), S. C. Hayes and colleagues instead defined verbal behavior as “the action of framing events relationally” (Hayes, Fox, et al., 2001, p. 43). The central task of this article is to clarify and resolve or dismiss this definitional dispute. Specifically, I investigate the nature of this dispute by determining what kind of definition each offers. As a result, I conclude that Skinner’s serves as a lexical definition—an assertion about the customary usage of the term verbal behavior (and its cognates). On the other hand, RFT’s qualifies as a type of persuasive definition; namely, a hybrid possessing some features of both stipulative and lexical definitions. As such, I argue that the two definitions serve different goals and are, therefore, not in conflict. Given that juxtaposing these two disparate definitions constitutes an “apples and oranges” comparison, I conclude that this faux dispute requires no resolution. Instead, I propose its dismissal. Lastly, RFT’s proponents raised three principal objections to Skinner’s definition. The fact that the two definitions are not in conflict does not absolve Skinner’s definitions of these objections. Therefore, after reviewing these three arguments, I offer counterarguments and conclude that Skinner’s definition survives largely unscathed.
Instructive feedback is a procedure that introduces additional stimuli before or after a learning trial and can result in the acquisition of stimuli not directly taught. Further research may help us better understand the conditions under which instructive feedback is effective and preferred. In the present study, the experimenters presented intraverbal instructive feedback during tact and intraverbal teaching and compared the rate of acquisition for primary and secondary targets with a 6-year-old autistic child. The experimenters evaluated preference for learning method with a concurrent-chains procedure. Finally, the experimenters measured the frequency of echoics during teaching sessions. The tact and intraverbal conditions resulted in similar acquisition of primary and secondary targets, and the participant reported a preference for the tact condition. Further, there was initially a higher frequency of echoics to the primary target. As acquisition increased toward mastery, there were fewer echoics to the primary target and higher echoics to the secondary target. These results suggest that overt echoic behavior may facilitate the acquisition of secondary targets for some learners and demonstrate how clinicians may provide the learner with a choice of teaching strategies.
Vocal exchanges are often comprised of responses under multiple sources of stimulus control. For example, a picture may contain multiple components, and an instructor may ask a learner to respond differentially to questions about the picture (e.g., “who,” “what,” “where,” “color,” “number,” “shape”). The format of teaching may affect the development of verbal behavior under multiple sources of stimulus control. Therefore, the present investigation compared teaching stimuli in isolation to teaching with compound stimuli on the emergence of verbal behavior to evaluate methods that assist with correctly answering questions about compound stimuli. This study used a translational model with undergraduate students in Experiment 1 and replicated the procedures with a child with autism spectrum disorder in Experiment 2. Probes of untrained speaker and listener relations were conducted prior to training and following the emergence of the multiply controlled intraverbal tacts. Results show limited differences in the impact of training stimuli on acquisition and emergence. Results also show trial arrangements that may promote the emergence of untrained verbal relations. Potential clinical applications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
A growing body of literature supports the use of echoic prompts toward conditioning other functional language skills. However, many individuals with autism spectrum disorder do not emit echoic behavior. Identifying the prerequisite skills of an echoic repertoire may be beneficial for intervention planning and clinical decision making. A chart review was conducted for 118 patients with autism who received early intensive behavioral intervention. We examined the Level 1 scores on the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (Sundberg, 2014) for all patients. Using their scores on the echoic skills subtest as a dependent variable, we ran a binomial logistic regression in which the remaining eight domains, along with age and sex, served as independent variables. Our logistic regression model was statistically significant: X 2 (10) = 109.61, p < .001. The model explained 86.0% of the variance in echoic verbal behavior and correctly classified 95.8% of cases. Patients who demonstrated a mand repertoire were greater than 3.5 times more likely to also exhibit an echoic repertoire. Additionally, vocal play and motor imitation were associated with an increased ability to echo. Using binomial logistic regression, we identified three predictors influencing the echoic behavior of children with autism. Patients who demonstrated these three skills were statistically significantly more likely to echo the vocal verbal behavior of others. Additional research is now needed to confirm a functional relationship between each of these predictors and echoic control.
Deficits in communicating one’s wants and needs can have significant and detrimental effects on quality of life. Particularly for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other related disabilities, manding is a pivotal skill that influences long-term prognosis. Mand training is complex and relies on several components to facilitate acquisition. Various approaches have been developed to target this pivotal repertoire; however, it is unknown if there are common elements, or “critical components,” among interventions. Identifying these components may support the design of mand training interventions for young children that are efficient and effective. In this systematic review, we synthesized the characteristics of 118 participants included in 45 single-case studies teaching preschool-aged children to mand. Findings indicated that most studies conduct preference assessments to inform target selection, manipulate motivating operations, and deliver specific reinforcement following the emission of the mand. This review reveals a gap in observing behavioral indication, teaching under both establishing operation (EO) and abolishing operation (AO) conditions, and failure to observe interactions with the consequent stimulus. Overall, the results suggest differences in the variables included in mand training interventions and those critical to acquisition of a functional mand repertoire cannot be determined. We discuss implications and directions for future research.
Technology offers exciting possibilities for instruction with learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but limited research has evaluated the use of web-based applications (apps) as learning tools for this population. We wondered if using apps would function as a precurrent response to solve problems in the form of questions on a worksheet. Participants were two adolescents with ASD, Phoebe and Gavin. We taught them to use map, weather, and clock apps to answer questions about distance, temperature, and time on a worksheet (e.g., “What time is it in Cairo?”). The cities varied to ensure the answers were always unknown. Training occurred for one app at a time in the manner of a multiple baseline design across behaviors. Training steps were progressively introduced to evaluate the components necessary for app use. Gavin progressed quickly through training with the first app and then demonstrated generalization across novel questions (i.e., with different cities), apps, and response modalities (i.e., answering vocally). Phoebe required more intensive training than Gavin, and eventually demonstrated generalization across novel questions. We discuss the implications of expanding technology-based problem-solving skills by applying Skinner’s (1957; 1984) analysis.
