Impressive electrochemical performance has been demonstrated with sulfide-based solid-state batteries. However, these results are predominantly obtained under high stack pressures—up to hundreds of MPa. While such conditions are valuable for probing fundamental material properties and intrinsic performance limits, the resulting cell metrics are not easily transferable to practical applications. Consequently, there is a growing imperative for application-oriented evaluation of SSBs under more realistic, low-pressure conditions in the single-digit MPa range. In this study, we demonstrate that the assessment of low-pressure performance can be significantly influenced by the chosen cell architecture. By comparing the cycling performance of sulfide-based SSBs—utilizing an NMC composite cathode and an In/(InLi) x anode with argyrodite-type Li 6 PS 5 Cl as electrolyte—in both pouch-cell and press-cell configurations, we reveal significant discrepancies in electrochemical performance at stack pressures ranging from 0 MPa to 25 MPa. Notably, the developed pouch cells exhibit superior electrochemical performance at low stack pressures of 1 MPa compared to their press-cell counterparts despite the same materials used. Using three-electrode pouch cells, we identify In/(InLi) x anode delamination as a primary low-pressure failure mechanism. Overall, our findings emphasize that a realistic assessment of SSB cell performance requires cell architectures that mirror targeted applications.
We made a quantitative comparison of the surface morphology and texture of polycrystalline copper thin films electrodeposited at fixed potential from an organic additive-free acid sulfate bath as a function of temperature and current density. The deposition conditions were (i) room temperature and 0.25 M Cu 2+ , (ii) zero Celsius and 0.25 M Cu 2+ , and (iii) room temperature and a Cu 2+ concentration selected to give the same current density as (ii). Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed qualitative differences between samples deposited under the different growth conditions. However, quantitative analysis of the AFM data also revealed similarities in how the surface morphology evolved. X-ray diffraction (XRD) results indicate that under all the conditions studied, the ratio of the Cu {220} to the Cu {111} peak height increases as the film thickness increases, and that this increase is much greater at room temperature than at zero Celsius. Temperature-dependent nucleation rates provide a plausible explanation for the texture differences between films deposited at room temperature and zero Celsius.
Due to their high porosity, abundant active sites, and reversible Ce 3+ /Ce 4+ redox couple, cerium-based metal–organic frameworks (Ce-MOFs) have garnered more attention in recent years. Benefiting from their porous architecture, accessible active sites, and excellent electrochemical characteristics, these frameworks have shown great potential in catalysis and electrochemical sensing. Building upon these advantages, a Ce-BDC-NH 2 /MWCNTs composite-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was designed and fabricated to achieve sensitive electrochemical detection of enrofloxacin. The synergistic constructed by multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and Ce-BDC-NH 2 effectively boosts the conductivity of composites, thus endowing the electrode with superior sensing selectivity and sensitivity. The proposed sensor exhibits a well-defined electrochemical response within a scan rate range of 30–150 mV·s −1 , with an optimal detection pH of 7.00. The prepared sensor showed linear response within the concentration range of 2–70 μM enrofloxacin and achieved a low detection limit of 8.64 nM. Additionally, this sensor possesses strong anti-interference capacity toward typical interferents including LA, COA and NA. In addition, the fabricated electrode maintains over 85% of its initial response after 21 d, indicating outstanding long-term stability and promising practical applicability.
This study investigates the effect of varying electrolyte amounts on the aging behavior of lithium-ion batteries using 4695 cells containing a high-nickel NMC cathode and a graphite-silicon composite anode. Eight pore filling ratios (PFRs), ranging from approximately half-filled pores to fully saturated pores with additional free electrolyte, are examined. All cells undergo 720 cycles of accelerated aging between 0% and 80% state of charge at 50 °C with a C-rate of 0.5 C. Despite significant differences in electrolyte amount, all cells exhibit remarkably similar capacity fade and resistance increase during cyclic aging. However, subsequent fast charging tests reveal that cells with very low or high PFRs show rapid capacity loss and increased resistance due to lithium plating. For high PFRs, this is attributed to electrolyte motion induced salt inhomogeneity (EMSI), while for low PFRs, increased capacity loss results from higher initial and aging-induced resistance caused by incomplete electrode wetting. In contrast, cells with intermediate PFRs demonstrate stable fast charging performance. Furthermore, moment of inertia measurements were applied for the first time to monitor the evolution of electrolyte amount during cycle life. These findings emphasize the significant influence of aging conditions on the optimal electrolyte amount for ensuring long-term battery durability.
Stimuli-responsive systems have been widely studied because of their ability to respond to diverse physical and chemical stimulus and their broad applicability across multiple fields. However, current stimuli-responsive systems lack precise control over drug release, limiting their practical effectiveness. Therefore, this study proposes an electrochemical model for magnetically controlled drug release via diffusion, using zein/magnetite nanoparticle (zein/NP) composite films. Zein/NP films were fabricated by solvent casting of zein with magnetite NPs dispersed and characterized by FTIR, Mössbauer spectroscopy, magnetization curves, MFM an DSC. Structural and magnetic characterization confirmed the formation of the magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) phase, with particle sizes predominantly in the 16–29 nm range and Zein/ NPs films a saturation magnetization value of 59 emu g −1 . The diffusion mechanism was evaluated by utilizing acetaminophen in a diffusion cell over 24 h, with a permanent magnet serving as a remote activator. Electrochemical Impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements provided insights into the films diffusion behavior, including resistance, capacitance, and diffusion coefficient ( σ ). The results demonstrated that the magnetic nanoparticles retained their magnetization in the zein films, and that drug diffusion increased with the applied magnetic field strength, while the diffusion resistance decreased under an external magnetic field applied from 2.4646 × 10 4 to 9.250 × 10 3 Ohms.s −1/2 . This study demonstrates the usefulness of the EIS technique for the study of controlled drug release systems and provides a foundation for developing magnetically controlled release systems with precise diffusion control, for applications in drug delivery, environmental remediation, and smart packaging.
The rapid popularization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in vehicles and energy storage brings frequent thermal runaway safety accidents, which severely restrict industrial development. Thermal runaway originates from multi-stage exothermic chain reactions inside cells and is the most dangerous battery failure mode. Based on domestic and international research, this paper systematically elaborates LIB thermal runaway reaction mechanisms, root inducements, advanced early warning technologies and battery thermal management strategies. The collaborative application of early warning and thermal management systems can effectively suppress thermal runaway initiation and propagation. Finally, the existing technical bottlenecks and future intelligent integrated development directions are prospected.
Abstract The development of efficient electrocatalysts is essential for the advancement of sustainable electro-organic synthesis. The catalytic utility of a biomass-derived carbon/PiMnO2 (inorganic phosphate manganese dioxide)-modified stainless steel electrode was demonstrated through the model electrochemical synthesis of 2-phenyl benzimidazole, selected as a representative oxidative C-N annulation reaction. The hierarchical design of the electrode improved charge-transfer behavior, which in turn enhanced electrocatalytic performance and product selectivity. The reaction was conducted in a three-electrode, single-compartment electrochemical setup at a constant oxidation potential of 1.125 V (vs SCE) under ambient conditions, enabling efficient synthesis without the need for external oxidants or harsh reagents. Detailed surface and structural analyses were conducted using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), while cyclic voltammetry (CV) and Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) revealed improved electrochemical kinetics. The strategy offers a promising approach to sustainable, selective electro-organic synthesis.
Accurate state-of-charge (SOC) estimation is essential for the safe and efficient operation of battery management systems (BMS). To address the limited accuracy and poor reliability of conventional methods under complex operating conditions, a transfer learning-enhanced physics-informed neural network (TL-PINN) is proposed for SOC estimation. The proposed framework embeds the underlying dynamics of the equivalent circuit into the neural network through differential equation constraints. By jointly optimizing data reconstruction and physical constraints, electrochemical knowledge is explicitly incorporated into the network, enabling improved estimation accuracy and robustness under complex scenarios. Furthermore, maximum mean discrepancy (MMD)-based adaptation and fine-tuning strategies are introduced to facilitate efficient reuse of source-domain knowledge and enhance cross-domain generalization. Experiments conducted on both single-cell and real-world vehicle datasets demonstrate that the base PINN model achieves the best overall performance, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.835%. In cross-temperature transfer scenarios, the RMSE remains below 3.0% across all target temperatures after fine-tuning. Moreover, after transferring the pretrained single-cell model to real-world vehicle operating data, the proposed method still achieves an average RMSE of 4.21%. These results demonstrate the superior adaptability and robustness of the proposed TL-PINN, highlighting its potential for reliable battery state monitoring in electric vehicles.
Thermal management of Li-ion cells within battery packs for stationary energy storage and electric vehicles is critical to ensure longevity. Cells within packs are often heated or cooled using a thermal plate underneath the pack, which could lead to non-uniform temperature in the cells. To test the effects of temperature gradients on LFP/graphite cylindrical cells, a specialized cell holder was designed to apply a constant temperature to the top of a cell and a different constant temperature to the bottom. Temperatures of 30 °C–40 °C, 25 °C–45 °C, and 15 °C–55 °C were applied to the bottom and tops of the cells, respectively, and verified using an infrared camera. Cells were cycled at a variety of rates for approximately six months, and the capacity loss was compared between the different conditions. For most conditions there was no difference in the capacity fade based on temperature gradient and performance closely matched that of cells tested at a constant temperature of 35 °C. Thermal modelling of the jelly roll suggests that the temperature gradient does not penetrate deeply into the jelly roll due to the excellent axial thermal conductivity and this can explain the independence of capacity loss on the magnitude of the applied temperature gradient.
This study focuses on the fast charging of lithium-ion cells with porous graphite electrodes while avoiding lithium plating. We demonstrate that by using a linearized version of the model equations, an optimization problem can be formulated, which bounds the maximum current density and ensures that the open-circuit potential at the graphite surface remains above a critical threshold. Based on these insights, we propose a new charging strategy evaluated using the full cell model, which initiates charging at the maximum allowable constant current (CC) before transitioning to a constant value for the open-circuit potential (CU) at the electrode-electrolyte interface. This CC-CU method is compared to various pulse charging protocols, the results of which are consistent with the proposed strategy providing a good estimate for the optimal charge rate for common use conditions.
Lithium-ion batteries are now deployed far beyond conventional applications in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and grid storage, extending into extreme environments such as space, deep-sea, and high-altitude operations. Under actual working conditions (including microgravity, 10 −7 Pa vacuum, 100 MeV radiation, 10 MPa hydrostatic pressure, etc), the fundamental electrochemical and transport properties of batteries are altered, leading to distinct failure mechanisms. To elucidate these degradation pathways, it is essential to integrate advanced operando synchrotron characterization with realistic environmental simulations. This approach provides critical insights for the rational design of high-reliability battery systems tailored to specific operational scenarios.
Abstract The intersection of machine learning (ML) and electrochemical research is catalyzing transformative advancements in energy storage and conversion technologies. This review critically examines the role of ML and deep learning (DL) in optimizing electrochemical systems, focusing on batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and sensors. ML-driven approaches facilitate accelerated material discovery, precise property predictions, and enhanced device performance monitoring, surpassing conventional trial-and-error methodologies. Integrating computational materials science, including density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics (MD), with ML enables predictive modelling of electrochemical processes at an unprecedented scale. However, challenges such as data heterogeneity, model interpretability, and computational cost continue to limit widespread adoption. This review identifies key strategies to overcome these barriers, including establishing standardized data repositories, developing hybrid physics-informed ML models, and implementing explainable AI (XAI) for enhanced model transparency. By addressing these challenges, ML has the potential to drive the next wave of breakthroughs in electrochemical energy storage and conversion, accelerating the transition toward a sustainable and energy-secure future.
Abstract Mott–Schottky (MS) analysis is widely applied to thin passive oxide films and photoelectrochemical layers (PELs) to extract donor densities and flat-band potentials. Yet the MS-concept assumes an ideal semiconductor: fixed shallow dopants, a genuine depletion layer, negligible Helmholtz contribution, no surface states, and chemical stability. Passive films and many PELs are often nanometre-thin, defect-rich, mixed ionic-electronic oxides whose capacitance often reflects redox activity, ion motion, and interfacial polarization rather than semiconductor doping. This perspective suggests that when MS validity fails, results should be considered as field-driven defect and ionic mobility, rather than solid semiconductor descriptors.
Abstract Extreme fast charging (XFC) of lithium-ion batteries is essential for reducing electric vehicle charging time. However, the influence of cylindrical cell format on thermo-electrochemical behavior under XFC remains insufficiently understood. This study employs a validated coupled airflow–electrochemical–thermal model to systematically investigate the charging performance of 18650, 21700, 26650, and 46120 cells at charge rates of 3C–6C. The analysis evaluates heat generation, temperature distribution, charging characteristics, lithium deposition potential, and lithiation behavior. Results indicate that the average volumetric heat generation rate is weakly affected by cell format, while cell format significantly influences thermal behavior, with larger cells exhibiting substantially higher peak temperatures and internal temperature gradients. These trends are primarily attributed to differences in convective surface-to-volume ratio, heat accumulation, and temperature-dependent changes in overall cell resistance. At 3C charge rate, change of format from 18650 to 46120 raises peak temperature by ~10°C and increases the maximum internal temperature difference by a factor of 4.65. Larger formats also achieve higher state-of-charge levels during the constant-current charging stage and exhibit reduced susceptibility to lithium plating. The findings highlight the critical role of cell geometry in determining XFC performance and provide practical guidance for designing next-generation high-energy battery systems and effective thermal management strategies.
Abstract A comprehensive, teardown-led parameterisation is developed for an electrochemical model of the Molicel P45B, a 4.5 Ah high-power lithium-ion cell with 21700 cylindrical form factor. Parameters are supplied in BPX JSON format, supporting Single Particle Model (SPM) and Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) “Newman-style” models. In continuation of the authors’ previous dissemination of an equivalent circuit model (ECM) of the same cell, detailed insights into the cell’s internal design are presented and compared to prior studies; this includes cell overall design and bill-of-materials, electrode masses and dimensions, and active material morphology and chemistry. The negative electrode is a graphite–SiOx blend and, by contrast to legacy parameterisation work, is described in the model using separately parameterised graphite and Si additive components which contribute in parallel to electrode charge capacity and current. Further, the Si-containing additive is described by an empirical, electrode-specific hysteresis model. Critical reported parameters utilise tuning for best predictive description of full cell voltage measurements, with comparison to values obtained from electrochemical measurements on harvested electrode samples from teardown. The parameterisation is validated holistically using application-relevant pulse and continuous-current data, across the full operating envelope of temperature, state-of-charge, and operating current.
Abstract Carbon support corrosion limits the long-term durability of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The statistical characteristics of catalyst layer (CL) degradation are investigated by combining small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) experiments with a population balance model. Five membrane electrode assembly samples were subjected to accelerated stress tests involving triangular-wave voltage cycling between 1.0 V and 1.5 V at a scan rate of 0.5 V·s-1 for different durations. SANS results show that the particle size distribution (PSD) curve of carbon support first shits toward larger sizes and then toward smaller sizes. A critical change in structural degradation pattern after 1000 cycles was identified by comparing the slope values of carbon particle radius, primary pore radius and ionomer film thickness curves. Based on variations in CL structure and electrochemical performance, a new three-stage degradation mechanism for CL is proposed. The population balance model reveals that initial distribution parameters and electrode potential dominate the particle degradation kinetics, thereby providing a new tool for the development of high-durability PEMFCs.
Abstract Tantalum production by molten salt electrolysis method has achieved some success in theory and technology, but the electrochemical mechanism of Ta in molten salt still need deeper study. Thus, in this paper, electrochemical methods were used to further study the electrochemical behavior, kinetics and deposition. The reduction process of Ta(V) occurring in NaCl-KCl-0.21 mol% K2TaF7 molten salt is identified as a reaction that occurs in a single-step and involves the transfer of five electrons. The diffusion coefficients calculated by CV, SWV, CA and CP are 1.1, 1.3, 1.6, 1.5 ×10-5 cm2 s-1 respectively. The dynamics studied shows that the exchange current density j0 of Ta(V)/Ta on W electrode increases with increasing temperature, while the charge transfer resistance Rct show a opposite trend. Tantalum has broad application across many fields owing to its outstanding properties.The electrode reaction activation energy Ea calculated by linear polarization curve and Tafel is 51 kJ mol-1 and 48 kJ mol-1. And the electrocrystallization process of Ta was found to be progressive nucleation. Finally, the morphology and element distribution analyzed by XRD and SEM show that the deposited Ta metal shows α-Ta phase with a flaky grains morphology with a particle size of about 5 μm
The pursuit of cost-effective energy storage systems with high power and long cycle life has driven increasing interest in carbon-based dual-ion technologies. Herein, we present a by-product-to-product strategy that transforms petroleum pitch—an abundant industrial by-product—into a high-value soft-carbon framework, enabling a dual-function intercalative system in which a single precursor-derived soft carbon serves as both cathode and anode in lithium-ion-based dual-carbon batteries. As-prepared soft carbon delivers 153 mAh g −1 at a high current density of 2 A g −1 at the anode, enabled by enlarged near-surface domains that facilitate fast, reversible ion storage. Similarly, as a cathode, it delivers 55 mAh g −1 at 2 A g −1 , exceeding that of a conventional graphite cathode, owing to abundant active sites and short diffusion pathways, supporting fast charging and enhanced structural stability. The dual-role intercalative behavior establishes a balanced system with a high energy density of ∼ 114 Wh kg −1 , even at a high-power density of ∼3665 W kg −1 , and durability exceeding 2000 cycles. This work demonstrates pitch-derived soft carbon as a unified bipolar electrode framework, advancing the design of next-generation lithium-ion batteries with high power and long life.
Abstract Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are increasingly recognized as promising candidates for large-scale energy storage, owing to their intrinsic safety, cost-effectiveness, and adaptable design. However, inadequate mass transfer and the resulting performance limitations are the main barriers to large-scale deployment and broader commercialization. In this work, a circular electrode coupled with a rotatory flow field is proposed. The main novelty of the proposed configuration lies in the coordinated design of the electrode geometry and flow-field architecture, which aims to simultaneously improve reactant distribution within the porous electrode and reduce the hydraulic penalty associated with electrolyte circulation. Numerical simulations were conducted to evaluate charge/discharge voltages, overpotential, uniformity factor, and polarization behavior for different designs. Compared with the parallel flow field, the proposed configuration improves the V²⁺ concentration uniformity factor by up to 18.27% and increases the discharge voltage by 2.24% at an applied current density of 40 mA/cm² and an inlet flow rate of 4 mL/s. Moreover, the rotatory configuration exhibits a substantially lower pressure drop than the serpentine flow field while maintaining superior electrochemical performance. These results demonstrate that the proposed circular-electrode/rotatory-flow-field coupling provides an effective strategy for simultaneously enhancing mass transport and limiting hydraulic losses in VRFBs.
Silicon monoxide is a promising high-capacity anode material for sulfide-based all-solid-state batteries, but interfacial reactions at the SiO/solid-electrolyte interface remain insufficiently understood. Here, we investigate binder- and solid-electrolyte-free evaporated SiO anodes directly deposited on roughened Cu foil in all-solid-state cells using an 80Li 2 S–20P 2 S 5 solid electrolyte. This electrode configuration provides direct SiO/solid-electrolyte contact and serves as a model system for analyzing intrinsic interfacial reactions. Electrochemical measurements, cross-sectional STEM-EELS/EDX, and Si, P, and S K-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy were used to examine cycling-induced structural changes. The evaporated SiO anode maintained intimate contact with the solid electrolyte after the initial discharge. During the initial charge, oxygen in the SiO layer redistributed toward the solid-electrolyte interface, accompanied by the formation of oxygen-containing phosphorus and sulfur species in the adjacent solid electrolyte. After discharge, the oxygen distribution in SiO became more uniform, and the oxygen-containing species in the solid electrolyte decreased, suggesting partially reversible oxygen-mediated interfacial reactions. After 20 cycles, low-valence Si species decreased while Si 0 increased, indicating progressive SiO disproportionation. These results suggest that repeated oxygen-mediated interfacial reactions are closely associated with the structural evolution and disproportionation of evaporated SiO anodes.
