Whether non-human animals can perceive and respond to inequitable resource distribution has become a prominent topic in behavioral and cognitive sciences. Fish possess notable cognitive capacities and display physiological and behavioral indicators of "emotion-like states" under stress, pain, or adverse conditions. However, it remains unclear whether fish can perceive inequitable resource allocation and exhibit emotion-related physiological and behavioral responses. Here, we investigated this question in a group-living cichlid, Chindongo demasoni, by manipulating the feeding order to create inequity in food acquisition order (priority-fed vs. delayed-fed). We examined whether this manipulation could elicit emotion-like states and whether these states were associated with variation in growth, hormone levels (dopamine and cortisol), metabolism (standard and routine metabolic rates), personality traits (activity, sociability, and aggression), and anxiety-like behaviors, ultimately influencing social hierarchy. Relative to delayed-fed individuals, priority-fed individuals consumed more food and exhibited a higher condition factor, and showed lower whole-body cortisol levels. However, no significant differences were detected between the two groups in personality traits, anxiety-like behaviors, metabolic rates, dopamine levels, or social rank. These findings suggest that Demasoni cichlids may perceive inequity in food distribution, with differences in food intake and cortisol levels consistent with emotion-like states. However, because cortisol levels and feeding/nutritional state can influence each other, the extent to which these differences reflect emotional processes versus nutritional effects remains unclear. This study provides new evidence for understanding whether and how non-human animals perceive social inequity and highlights the importance of minimizing persistent feeding-order differences in laboratory and aquaculture welfare management.
Understanding mating systems is central to ecology and evolution because reproduction shapes population dynamics, social organization, and species persistence. Interpreting these processes is especially important in rodents because of the key ecological role they play in seed dispersal and terrestrial food webs. The reproductive biology of the blind, echolocating rodent Typhlomys daloushanensis is currently not known, yet this knowledge would provide a unique opportunity to link sensory biology with life history and social organization. Here, we characterize reproduction, neonatal development, and social structure for this species under laboratory conditions. We established a captive breeding colony of T. daloushanensis and quantified key reproductive parameters, including gestation length, litter size, inter-birth interval, and offspring development to puberty. Successful reproduction occurred exclusively in male-female pairs, with no mating behavior observed in group housing. The species exhibited a life history consistent with other small rodents, with gestation lasting 28-30 days, weaning at ∼21-28 days, and maturation at >60 days, contrasting with the slower reproductive schedules of echolocating bats. Litter size ranged from 2 to 5, and offspring remained with parents well beyond weaning, indicating prolonged natal association. These findings link reproduction to social organization in this species. More broadly, our results establish foundational knowledge of reproduction in this echolocating rodent and provide a basis for future work on sensory ecology, social behavior, and the development of Typhlomys as a tractable experimental system.
Under homeostatic conditions, the gut microbiota are closely associated with host health, undergoing co-evolution with the host through complex interactions to maintain mutually beneficial symbiosis. However, dynamic changes in the gut microbiota of forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii; FMD) at different age stages and musk-secreting periods remain unclear. In this study, we analyzed the fecal microbiota of FMD using metagenomic sequencing across four age groups (subadult, young adult, adult, and old) and four musk-secreting period groups (before musk-secreting period, during musk-secreting period, after musk-secreting period, and musk collection). The results showed that the gut microbiota structure of FMD demonstrated stability across different age stages and musk-secreting periods and was dominated by Firmicutes. Moreover, changes in musk-secreting periods had a greater effect on the gut microbiota of subadult and old FMD, while age-associated differences in gut microbial composition were mainly evident during AMSP. LDA effect size (LEfSe) and STAMP analyses further revealed significant age-associated and musk-secreting period-associated differences in the structure and function of the gut microbiota in FMD. In addition, subadult FMD showed enhanced immune response-associated and potential pathogen-associated functions during musk collection, accompanied by the enrichment of potential opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, suggesting that musk collection may be associated with host stress responses and gut microecological disturbance. In summary, this study explored the relationships among age stages, musk-secreting periods, and gut microbiota of FMD, providing a certain strategic reference for the healthy captive breeding of FMD and the improvement of musk production.
Body size is a key economic trait influencing the profitability of farmed animals. This study used genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) significantly associated with body size in the Tibetan sheep population, advancing molecular breeding and providing a basis for genomic selection. These SNPs are located within five candidate genes. SNaPshot validated GWAS results, demonstrating significant correlations between candidate SNPs and body size traits in Tibetan sheep. Concurrently, hematoxylin and eosin staining, alongside muscle fiber analysis, confirmed pronounced morphological differences in muscle tissue between sheep of varying conformation. Therefore, transcriptome and proteomics were performed on the longest dorsi muscle from large and small Tibetan sheep of both sexes. The transcriptome, together with weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), identified VEPH1 and PRKG1 as core genes regulating body characteristics in Tibetan sheep through their involvement in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and pathways related to fat deposition. The integrative analyses demonstrated significantly different expression of CARNS1 and CRYAB at both transcriptional and protein levels between the muscles of large- and small-sized Tibetan sheep of both sexes, suggesting their importance in body size traits by influencing muscle morphology. This study provides valuable genomic resources that advance sheep genetics research.
Geographic segregation among closely related species may arise from divergent environmental preferences or constraints of interspecific interactions. For these three congeneric pika species in northeastern Asia, the relative contributions of these mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study investigates three congeneric species: Ochotona coreana, Ochotona mantchurica, and Ochotona hyperborea, to identify how environmental gradients and interspecific niche relationships jointly shape their spatial segregation. We combined public records with field survey to build species distribution models and reduced sampling bias through regional mammal density to optimize environmental variables and background points. We quantified each species' potential distribution, identified key environmental drivers, and evaluated ecological niche overlap to assess whether isolation reflects potential competition or habitat divergence. The three species showed distinct distribution patterns and environmental associations. O. coreana had the smallest potential range, restricted to high-elevation forests and tundra of the Changbai Mountains in China and DPR Korea. O. hyperborea ranged from northeastern China to the Russian Far East, with suitability driven by precipitation seasonality, isothermality, and forest composition. O. mantchurica distribution across Hulunbuir and eastern Mongolian grasslands mainly associated with precipitation seasonality and slope. Niche overlap was high between O. mantchurica and O. hyperborea, but low for O. coreana and the other species. Limited sympatry between the two wide-ranging species suggests potential niche segregation. The three species are isolated by distinct environmental drivers and potential competitive interactions. Our findings clarify the environmental and ecological drivers shaping species boundaries in these closely related pika species and provide a framework for evaluating distributional dynamics in data-limited small mammals.
Land-use change is accelerating worldwide and is one of the strongest predictors of emerging zoonotic disease. These ecological transitions can disrupt host microbiomes, change pathogen carriage, and create novel opportunities for spillover at wildlife-livestock-human interfaces. Yet, little is known about how reforested landscapes influence microbiome diversity and the distribution of zoonotic bacteria in key reservoir hosts such as bats, rodents, treeshrews, and domestic dogs. We characterized the rectal microbiome of bats, rodents, and domestic dogs sampled across a land-use gradient in Nan Province, Thailand, spanning caves, forests, reforested zones, plantations, and village habitats. Full-length 16S rRNA sequencing was used to assess host- and habitat-specific patterns at the bacteria species level. Pathogen-associated taxa were identified, and their potential transmission pathways were explored using network analysis and qPCR validation targeting Salmonella spp. From 102 samples, 1816 taxa were identified, including 354 documented human pathogens. Hierarchical Modeling of Species Communities models confirmed that host species explained far more variation in pathogen occurrences than habitat type, with dogs, Menetes berdmorei, and Scotophilus heathii exhibiting particularly high pathogen diversity. Domestic dogs also displayed high network centrality and move freely across habitats, positioning them as a key bridging host. Salmonella screening detected both Salmonella enterica (serovars Newport/Typhimurium) and the reptile-associated Salmonella bongori, the latter unexpectedly in bats and rodents, with variable concordance between metabarcoding and qPCR results. Our findings demonstrate that host identity, more than habitat type, structures pathogen-associated microbiomes across a reforested landscape. Understanding these dynamics is essential to anticipate pathogen flow and strengthen One Health surveillance.
Australia has a diversity of mammals, with approximately 60 extant species being native rodents in the Family Muridae. Two major groups occur, the Rattus species and the Hydromyini. Investigations on their reproductive biology have shown that all species of Rattus have large scrotal testes which produce abundant spermatozoa. The sperm head contains a single apical hook in which a nuclear extension occurs. In female Rattus, the litter size varies from about 4 to 12 across the species. In sexually mature male hydromyine rodents, marked interspecific differences occur in relative testes mass from about 0.5% to 3% body mass in most species to only 0.1% body mass in most Notomys. Most male Notomys also have a highly divergent reproductive tract, with the penis containing large spines, whereas the female has a small, highly muscular vagina which facilitates locking between the pair at the time of mating. The hydromyine sperm morphology also varies markedly across the species, with most having a complex sperm head with an apical hook together with two ventral processes that contain actin. In a few species, a simpler sperm head occurs with only one, or no, apical hook. Clearly, the hydromyine rodents, unlike the Rattus genus, exhibit a diverse array of reproductive biological traits in both males and females, the full evolutionary significance of which has yet to be ascertained.
Malayan pangolin populations have fallen to a critically endangered level, and illegal trafficking of wild pangolins is a global problem. Little is known about antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (MDRB) harbored by pangolins, although pangolins are frequently consumed as food or used in traditional medicine. In this study, we report for the first time that strains of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli were found in a captured Malayan pangolin in Shenzhen, China (December 2018). Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) were found in great diversity and abundance on conjugative plasmids, according to genomic analysis. IncX1-type replicon plasmids carrying numerous ARGs and conserved mobile genetic elements predominated in MDR E. coli isolates. Their ability to transport genes horizontally was further strengthened by structural characteristics such class 1 integron-like gene clusters, IS26, and Tn1721, which may have made cross-species dissemination easier. Overall, our findings suggest that illegal transboundary trafficking of Malayan pangolins may contribute to the dissemination of MDRB and highlight the potential public health risks associated with uncontrolled wildlife trade.
Water availability strongly constrains animal behavior in arid ecosystems. Species relying on low-water diets must balance hydration needs with foraging, thermoregulation, competition, and predation risk. While most studies focus on species-level responses, less is known about how individuals within populations differ in water-related behavior. Here, we examine individual and population-level variation in water-use patterns in a small wintering population of ring ouzels (Turdus torquatus) within an arid high-mountain ecosystem on Tenerife (Canary Islands), using camera trapping and individual recognition during the 2022-2023 wintering season. We analyzed multiple components of water-use behavior in relation to ambient temperature, social context, and dominance status. Drinking probability during visits (70% on average) and visit duration increased with temperature, consistent with rising thermoregulatory demands, although individual responses differed among water sources. Bathing behavior showed a consistent quadratic relationship with temperature across individuals, peaking at intermediate values (∼15°C). Social context also shaped behavior: Drinking probability increased with the number of conspecifics, whereas visits were shorter when more birds were present. Dominant individuals made more visits, drank more frequently, and consumed larger daily water volumes-up to 30 mL (∼30% of body mass)-than subordinates, revealing unequal access to water within the population. Together, our results demonstrate that environmental heterogeneity and social hierarchy jointly structure access to a critical resource, generating pronounced intra-specific behavioral variation. As aridity intensifies under climate change, individual behavioral flexibility and social dynamics may play a key role in determining population persistence and the maintenance of bird-mediated ecosystem functions.
Effective marine conservation and spatial management require a thorough understanding of the distribution patterns of odontocete cetaceans. However, knowledge of their spatiotemporal distribution within China's Jiushan Archipelago National Nature Reserve remains limited. To address this gap, passive acoustic monitoring was conducted monthly in the reserve from October 2023 to December 2025, with the study area expanded to include adjacent waters beginning in August 2024. A total of 400 acoustic tracks, 116 feeding-related detections, and 238 acoustic encounters were recorded. Cetaceans were detected within the reserve during every calendar month, whereas outside the reserve, detections occurred only in February and from April through September. The mean cetacean track detection rate was higher within the reserve (0.21 ± 0.03 detections/km; mean ± SE) than in adjacent non-reserve waters (0.06 ± 0.02 detections/km). Monthly cetacean detections increased from January, peaked in July, declined through November, and rose again thereafter. High-use cetacean distribution and feeding areas were concentrated along the eastern island chain within the reserve, in waters with depths of 10-11 m, and at a distance of 300-400 m from the nearest islands. Cetacean detection rates and acoustic encounter durations were significantly elevated during the fishing-ban period relative to fishing-allowed period. Fishing vessels significantly reduced both cetacean acoustic detections and feeding activity, whereas gillnets selectively suppressed cetacean feeding behavior without affecting overall cetacean detection rates. These findings establish a robust scientific foundation for enhancing cetacean conservation and optimizing fisheries management within the reserve and in comparable coastal ecosystems.
Host-parasite interactions can have disproportionate consequences in small, isolated populations, particularly on oceanic islands where endemic species face multiple threats. The endangered speckled lizard Gallotia intermedia, endemic to Tenerife (Canary Islands), persists in only two small populations, yet its parasite fauna has remained unexplored. We combined microscopic screening and molecular phylogenetic analyses to characterize blood parasites infecting G. intermedia from the coastal cliffs of Montaña de Guaza and to place these infections in a broader biogeographic context. We detected apicomplexan parasites of the genus Karyolysus infecting 53.6% of G. intermedia and 100% of the syntopic congener Gallotia galloti. All infected G. intermedia harbored a single parasite lineage (haplotype Gi19), and deep amplicon sequencing revealed no evidence of cross-infection with haplotypes circulating in G. galloti at this locality. Comparative analyses showed that haplotype Gi19 is widespread in G. galloti throughout Tenerife, including extreme high-elevation sites, but was absent in samples from neighbour islands of Gran Canaria and La Palma. Infection intensity in G. intermedia was low, suggesting effective immune control and a long-standing host-parasite association. Higher prevalence in immature lizards indicates age-related vulnerability. The broad geographic distribution of Gi19 relative to the lizard's current restricted range supports the hypothesis that parasite diversity reflects historical host distributions. These results provide the first baseline of blood parasites in G. intermedia and highlight the importance of parasitological data for conservation assessments of threatened insular reptiles.
Invasive woody species often exhibit long-distance seed dispersal by animals as well as clonal reproduction. However, studies on invasions have rarely focused on both types of reproduction. Our study aimed to identify animal species transporting seeds of Prunus cerasus L. to distant areas in Los Alerces National Park (Argentina) and determine the relevance of animals and clonality at different stages of invasion. We identified the animal species responsible for depulping seeds and estimated the seed dispersal distances generated by foxes and birds. We examined the recruitment and mortality of P. cerasus saplings in an invaded area of Los Alerces National Park over six years (2013-2018). In addition, we assessed the proportion of saplings originating from the germination of depulped seeds versus clonal reproduction in three areas at different invasion stages. Foxes [Lycalopex culpaeus (Molina, 1782)] moved 44% of the seeds more than 1 km, whereas birds moved more than 70% of the seeds less than 30 m. Our results suggest that germination and long-distance seed dispersal by foxes are primarily responsible for the spread of P. cerasus to new areas, whereas clonal reproduction significantly contributes to local expansion. Animals were not relevant when the invasion advanced; mortality and clonality accounted for 95% of the variability in the number of individuals. However, animals were fundamental at the initial stage; 100% of saplings originated from the germination of depulped seeds. Finally, we propose a conceptual model to understand the role of animals in the spread phase of invasion.
Rodents cause damage to agricultural crops and biodiversity. Rodent control occurs to reduce damage and ideally increase crop yield and biodiversity. So, do control efforts increase outcomes, such as yield? The sequence of relationships between control, rodents, damage, and outcomes is examined for empirical evidence of each. Simple, general models of relationships are described and elaborated for control effort-outcome relationships. Two models, the logarithmic and inverse models, assume diminishing returns and accelerated losses, and one model, the linear model, assumes no diminishing returns and no accelerated losses. The results show there are many studies of rodent control and rodent damage; however, few empirical studies of relationships between rodent control efforts and outcomes, such as crop yield. The rodent control effort-outcome relationship should be estimated more frequently, ideally using randomized regression-design experiments and diminishing returns and accelerated losses evaluated as part of causal inference.
The gut microbiome is a key regulator of host nutritional intake, growth, and health, playing an essential role in mediating host adaptation to environmental changes. The northernmost population of rhesus macaque, Taihangshan macaque (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis), faces severe survival challenges, such as food shortages and harsh temperatures during winter and early spring. Previous studies have shown that they cope with seasonal changes through behavioral adaptations, such as adjusting food resources and flexibly regulating macronutrient intake. However, the role of the gut microbiome in supporting the seasonal adaptation of Taihangshan macaques remains unclear. Herein, we investigated seasonal variations in gut microbiome alpha diversity, composition, and functions from fecal samples of Taihangshan macaques using metagenomic analysis. The results showed that: (1) totally 435 non-redundant metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) were generated; (2) alpha diversity was significantly higher in spring and winter than in summer and autumn; and (3) in winter, pathways of fatty acid biosynthesis and essential amino acid (EAA) biosynthesis, as well as CAZymes (GH3 and GH5) involved in cellulose and hemicellulose degradation, were significantly enriched. In contrast, pathways related to carbohydrate, energy, and glycan biosynthesis and metabolism, along with CAZymes (GT8 and GH23) potentially facilitating fat synthesis and storage, were enriched in summer. These functional adjustments likely help the host cope with seasonal variations in food availability and environmental conditions. Overall, this study provides new insights into how the gut microbiome responds to seasonal changes in diet and environmental factors in mammals inhabiting temperate forests.
Maternal investment in offspring defense is expected to enhance offspring survival and parental reproductive success. In cobweb spiders that construct detritus-based, bell-shaped retreats, these structures serve to protect the spiderling. The brood value hypothesis predicts that such defensive investment should be proportional to brood value (e.g., egg sac mass and number). We tested this hypothesis in the cobweb spider Campanicola campanulata by conducting field measurements of retreat architecture and maternal defensive investment in relation to egg sac presence, weight, and total grains. As predicted, females with egg sacs constructed larger retreats, and investment increased with both egg sac mass and egg count. These results support the brood value hypothesis and highlight retreat architecture as a crucial yet understudied component of parental care in spider.
Across a species' distribution, environmental conditions vary, exposing populations to distinct ecological pressures. High-elevation sites exemplify such environments, where reptiles face harsher conditions that may interact with other sources of variation, such as morphotypes (alternative color phenotypes). Investigating life history traits of these populations is essential to understanding how organisms persist under environmental stress and how morphotypes contribute to that persistence. We analyzed three high-elevation populations of the mesquite lizard (Sceloporus grammicus Wiegmann, 1828), a widely distributed polymorphic lizard. We marked and monitored 1198 individuals during the 2017-2018 activity seasons and collected reproductive data from 60 females and 82 neonates. Using these data, we parameterized Pradel and linear models to estimate survival, recruitment and population growth rate, relative litter mass and newborn traits. In 2024, we conducted an additional survey of 274 individuals to fit N-mixture models to corroborate abundance trends. Contrary to life history theory, we have not detected altitudinal trends in reproductive traits, survival, or population growth within the altitude range studied. Instead, we found morphotype influenced recruitment and population growth rate, particularly in the highest-elevation population, where yellow females showed higher recruitment. Populations previously reported as within the same genetic cluster shared similar traits, suggesting a role for genetic structure over elevation. The only consistent pattern across all populations was a strong bias toward yellow morphotypes, especially in sites 1 and 2. Our findings indicate morphotype bias, only explained by recruitment in one site and no relation between life history and elevation in these high elevation populations.
Мarine cottoid fishes of the genus Triglopsis colonized large lakes of glacial genesis in Northern Europe and North America. The fourhorn sculpin Triglopsis quadricornis dispersed into post-glacial European lakes (e.g., Ladoga and Onega) from the Baltic Sea. The Great Lakes are inhabited by a freshwater species, Triglopsis thompsonii. Lacustrine forms of Triglopsis from North American and European lakes are at different stages of evolution, making them a suitable model for testing hypotheses about evolutionary patterns and rates. An integrative analysis of morphological, genetic, and biological adaptations occurring in lacustrine forms of the genus Triglopsis was carried out. The obtained results demonstrate the presence of rapid adaptive changes in morphological features associated with skeletal lightening. The degree of morphological transformation varies from lake to lake, thus gradual morphological changes are observed. The diet of lake forms is dominated by crustaceans, as in marine Triglopsis, but the objects they consume gradually decrease in size. In contrast to morphological differences, populations are characterized by weak genetic differentiation from each other due to recent colonization (10-15 kya). However, genetic evidence of the adaptive nature of speciation processes occurring in the genus Triglopsis, which are not characteristic of Myoxocephalinae in general, was found. Methods for the detection of natural selection revealed an increase in episodic positive selection occurring in the cytb gene in species of the genus Triglopsis (as well as Megalocottus) that successfully adapted to low water salinity. Thus, the studied species undergo rapid adaptive changes associated with the colonization of a new habitat.
In invasion biology, geospatial data are fundamental for analyzing invasion dynamics. Focusing on invasive alien insect species (IAIS) dispersal, this study assesses the role and reuse potential of published geospatial data via a bibliometric analysis of literature from 2016 to 2026. By examining all IAIS-related publications, we found 1032 articles (59.0% of the total) that presented geospatial data in thematic maps, forming a substantial repository. We analyzed these publications across four dimensions-visual representation, spatial scale, data reuse, and data accessibility-revealing point-based data (80.1%) as most common, regional-scale analysis (54.9%) predominant, high adoption of geospatial data reuse (74.7%), and a majority (51.0%) lacking downloadable source data. To evaluate data reuse value, we explored integrating datasets across regions, time periods, and species. Such integration can overcome limitations of individual studies, often with constrained spatial coverage, short temporal scales, and narrow taxonomic focus. However, the significant absence of raw data in publications hinders the reuse of geospatial data. We therefore propose developing computational techniques to extract quantitative data directly from thematic map figures in publications. We addressed key challenges and potential solutions in the data extraction workflow, including georeferencing, thematic feature recognition, and thematic layer separation. We anticipate that overcoming these data extraction challenges will transform static map images into dynamic, computable knowledge, paving the way for data sharing and enhanced global IAIS monitoring and governance.
The independent evolution of hypoxia tolerance across phylogenetically distinct species, including marine mammals, highland species, and subterranean mammals, represents a classic example of convergent evolution. Although these taxa produced similar physiological solutions to address comparable evolutionary challenges, the underlying genetic mechanisms of their convergent adaptation remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated genomic signatures of convergent evolution in hypoxia-tolerant mammals. Hypoxia-tolerant lineages exhibited accelerated rates of protein evolution relative to normoxia-adapted species. We identified 499 positively selected genes and 1585 rapidly evolving genes in hypoxia-tolerant mammals, with significant functional enrichment related to hypoxia response and cardiovascular regulation. We also detected 817 genes showing convergent shifts in relative evolutionary rates at the protein-coding level across hypoxia-tolerant species. Widespread lineage-specific amino acid substitutions were detected, a subset of which occur within key functional domains implicated in hypoxia adaptation. Remarkably, functional assays demonstrated that overexpression of cetacean HYOU1 (hypoxia up-regulated protein 1) significantly reduced malondialdehyde and reactive oxygen species levels, while suppressing hypoxia-induced target gene expression, compared with human ortholog and mutation constructs. Together, these findings provide genomic and functional evidence for convergent genetic mechanisms underlying hypoxia adaptation in mammals.
Understanding how animals adjust their space use in changing environments is important for conservation, especially for species restricted to fragmented mountain habitats. We studied the home range of one wild group of golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Baihe National Nature Reserve, Sichuan Province, China, using 10 years of monitoring data from 2014 to 2023. We estimated seasonal and annual home ranges, examined elevational use, reconstructed annual habitat suitability, and assessed which environmental variables were most closely associated with home-range size. The results revealed seasonal variation in home range, with the smallest ranges occurring during winter, and showed that space use was concentrated at mid-elevations, approximately 2300-2700 m. MaxEnt-predicted suitable-habitat area increased slightly over the decade, but this change mainly reflected core stability with peripheral reorganization. Predictor importance analyses suggested a temporal shift in the main determinants of habitat suitability, from topography and human disturbance toward hydrology. Machine-learning results indicated that home-range size was mainly associated with coniferous forest area, MaxEnt-derived suitable-habitat area, shaded-slope area, and other environmental predictors. Our results suggest that R. roxellana employs dynamic spatial-use strategies to adapt to the complexity of mountainous environments. These findings highlight that conservation efforts should shift from a focus on "area-based protection" to "function-based conservation," with priority given to maintaining stable high-suitability core areas, key coniferous forest patches, and topographic heterogeneity.
