Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is highly prevalent among adolescents receiving mental health services; it has been increasingly linked to impairments in personality development. However, less is known about how NSSI relates to the dimensional construct of the level of personality functioning (LPF). This study examined associations between LPF and NSSI characteristics in a clinical adolescent sample. The participants were 104 adolescents receiving mental health services in Lithuania (M age = 15.03 years, SD = 1.47). LPF was assessed by using the clinician-rated Semi-Structured Interview for Personality Functioning DSM-5 (STiP-5.1), and NSSI was assessed by using a researcher-developed questionnaire. Overall, 71.2% of adolescents reported a history of NSSI. NSSI prevalence increased progressively with greater impairments in personality functioning, from 20.0% among adolescents with normative functioning to 95.8% among those with severe impairment. Self-functioning impairments demonstrated stronger associations with NSSI than interpersonal functioning impairments. Although the age of onset and lifetime frequency of NSSI did not significantly differ across LPF, higher levels of personality dysfunction were associated with more recent NSSI and a greater likelihood of self-injury requiring medical attention. Emotion regulation was the most frequently endorsed function of NSSI, whereas adolescents with greater personality dysfunction more often reported interpersonal motives. The findings underscore the importance of assessing personality functioning in adolescents who self-injure to facilitate early identification and timely intervention for youth at risk for persistent and clinically severe NSSI.
As we discuss in this paper, physical attractiveness is not the only way to define a person`s appeal. We suggest that personality traits also have an impact on the perceived attractiveness of a person. The main objective of this paper was to assess the men’s perspective on the attraction of women with characteristics of Dark Triad traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy). This study was based on a quasi-experimental design in which 94 men participated. Participants were randomly presented with one of two scenarios about the day of woman X, where the expression of the Dark Triad personality traits (low and high) was manipulated. Our research results revealed that women with a high level of Dark Triad traits are perceived by men to be less attractive (n = 52) than women with a low level of Dark Triad traits (n = 42). Our results partially support the idea that women are perceived as more attractive if they meet certain gender norms such as being friendly, community-oriented, being less aggressive, and non-manipulative.
This article examines the method of clinical case study in psychotherapy, with the aim of evaluating its place within the contemporary psychological and psychotherapeutic scientific discourse and defining its methodological and epistemological potential. Drawing on the longstanding critique of single-case (N=1) research, most commonly based on arguments of limited generalisability, the article proposes that such evaluations fail to adequately reflect the methodological specificity and epistemic value of clinical case studies. The first part of the article presents the development of the case study method, from early anthropological research to the psychoanalytic tradition, in which, the case study became established as a central form of theory construction and clinical thinking. Contemporary developments in case study research are also discussed, highlighting the importance of clinical case studies due to their capacity to maintain a close connection with everyday therapeutic practice. In the second part of the article, drawing on a clinical example, the article demonstrates how single-case analysis enables a systematic and multi-layered examination of the patient’s experience, the dynamics of the therapeutic relationship, diagnostic reasoning, and the functioning of theoretical assumptions within a specific clinical context. The article presents recommendations for writing clinical case studies, addressing key structural, methodological, and ethical aspects. The clinical case study method is thus understood not as an alternative or secondary approach, but as an essential form of knowledge in psychotherapy, enabling the investigation of complex psychological phenomena within their unique context.
Safety has become an increasingly relevant topic in Lithuania in the context of recent geopolitical events. This study examined changes in perceived safety, safety as a value, and political news consumption among Lithuanians by using repeated cross-sectional data from the European Social Survey collected in 2018 (n = 1835), 2020 (n = 1659), and 2023 (n = 1365). Between-wave comparisons and correlational analyses were conducted. The results showed that perceived safety was higher in 2020 and 2023 compared to 2018, while the importance of safety as a value remained stable across waves. Political news consumption decreased in 2020 and increased again in 2023 compared to 2018.
Socialiniuose tinkluose sparčiai plintant melagingai informacijai, tampa svarbu suprasti, kokie stilistiniai ir socialiniai signalai lemia jos vertinimą. Šio tyrimo tikslas buvo ištirti, kaip antraščių sensacingumas ir socialinis pritarimas (patiktukų skaičius) veikia tikrų ir melagingų naujienų patikimumo suvokimą bei elgesio ketinimus socialiniuose tinkluose, taip pat ar požiūris į socialinių tinklų naudojimą moderuoja sensacingumo poveikį. Eksperimentiniame tyrime (N = 117; 18–29 m., M = 23,02, SD = 2,29) buvo manipuliuojama antraščių sensacingumu (neutrali / sensacinga) ir socialiniu pritarimu (mažesnis / didesnis patiktukų skaičius). Dalyviai vertino 5 tikrus ir 5 melagingus „Facebook“ naujienų įrašus, nurodydami suvokiamą patikimumą, ketinimą skaityti naujieną ir ketinimą tikrinti faktus. Rezultatai parodė, kad sensacingumas nepaveikė ketinimo skaityti nei tikrų, nei melagingų naujienų, tačiau sumažino melagingų naujienų suvokiamą patikimumą ir padidino ketinimą tikrinti jų faktinį tikrumą. Socialinis pritarimas neturėjo reikšmingo poveikio nei patikimumo vertinimui, nei elgesio ketinimams. Požiūris į socialinių tinklų naudojimą neveikė kaip moderuojantis veiksnys. Gauti rezultatai rodo, kad sensacinga forma gali veikti kaip skepticizmą aktyvinantis signalas, vertinant klaidinančią informaciją, o neutraliai pateikta melaginga informacija gali būti labiau įtikinama. Tai turi praktinių implikacijų medijų raštingumo ugdymui ir informacinės higienos iniciatyvoms, pabrėžiant poreikį kritiškai vertinti ne tik akivaizdžiai emocingą, bet ir neutraliai pateikiamą turinį.
Psichoonkologija – tai sparčiai besivystanti tarpdisciplininė mokslinė ir klinikinė sritis, analizuojanti onkologinių ligų sukeltas psichologines ir socialines problemas ir kurianti įrodymais grįstus pagalbos modelius pacientams, jų artimiesiems ir sveikatos priežiūros specialistams. Šio straipsnio tikslas – pristatyti psichoonkologijos raidos ištakas, teorinius pagrindus ir pagrindinius šios srities uždavinius, apimančius pacientų psichologinių poreikių įvertinimą, reikalavimus specialistų, dirbančių onkologiniuose skyriuose, kompetencijoms, psichosocialinių intervencijų integravimą į onkologinės priežiūros procesą, mokslinės psichoonkologijos plėtojimą. Straipsnyje apžvelgiama psichoonkologijos raida Lietuvoje – nuo pirmųjų klinikinių medicinos psichologų iniciatyvų ligoninėse iki sparčiai besivystančios mokslinės ir akademinės psichoonkologijos ir gausėjančių publikacijų, taip pat įstatymu sureguliuotos galimybės onkologiniams pacientams gauti specializuotą psichologinę pagalbą. Straipsnyje pateikiami pagrindiniai psichoonkologijos aspektai galėtų būti įdomūs ir naudingi medicinos psichologams bei sveikatos priežiūros specialistams, dirbantiems onkologijos srityje, o įvardytos psichoonkologijos Lietuvoje problemos galėtų atkreipti sveikatos politikos formuotojų dėmesį.
This study explored the barriers experienced by teachers in the use of curiosity in classrooms in selected secondary schools in South Africa. By using a multiple case study design within a qualitative framework, data were obtained from 15 teacher participants from 3 (private) independent secondary schools in the Midlands area of KwaZulu Natal. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data, and the data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. Teacher participants identified several key barriers which were divided into three main themes: teacher-related barriers, learner-related barriers, and school-related barriers. The findings indicate that teacher-related barriers include inadequate time available for lesson planning, teacher fatigue and over-extension, and teachers’ fear of the unknown. The findings also indicate that learner-related barriers include learner fatigue and over-extension, learner engagement and apathy, and a results-orientated mindset. Finally, the findings report that school-related barriers include curriculum demands and time constraints, rigid assessment criteria and a diverse range of learners in classrooms. It recommends that the Department of Education should prioritize professional development for teachers so that to equip them with the skills to foster greater curiosity, leading to more empowered and effective teaching.
This study aimed to assess the predictive effect of selected study environment factors on the satisfaction of students’ basic needs and subjective vitality. Due to its links with motivation and well-being indicators, subjective vitality is an essential phenomenon among students. Previous studies reveal the importance of basic psychological needs for vitality. Still, from a practical point of view, it is crucial to indicate specific factors that help students to satisfy these needs. Students spend most of their time in the environment of a higher education institution, within its community; therefore, it is natural that the social study environment can strongly determine their well-being.One hundred and seventy-five adult students participated in the study. The participants completed a questionnaire of scales assessing subjective vitality, satisfaction of basic needs, and 4 study environment factors, specifically, autonomy-supportive learning climate, opportunities for development, feedback, and a sense of belonging. Multiple linear regression and mediation analyses were used for data processing.The results have revealed that all the selected study environment factors were associated with higher subjective vitality, whereas the strongest predictor of vitality was the sense of belonging. Mediation analysis showed that basic psychological needs explain the effect of the study environment factors on vitality.The results have revealed the importance of the study environment in the extent to which students feel alive and provided practical insights on the ways how to strengthen student vitality.
Professional, motivated, and productive employees represent one of the most important conditions for the effective operation of modern organizations, seeking to adapt to a dynamic social and economic environment and the constantly changing needs of society. This highlights the importance of maintaining a work–life balance for employees, as only those who have a fulfilling life can make the best use of their skills and energy to perform their work. Research shows that, in order to encourage organizations to create favorable conditions for employees so that they could maintain a work–life balance, it is important to understand the significance of work environment factors and work-related employee well-being for this balance. The aim of this study is to examine the significance of job demands, resources, employee burnout, and work engagement for work–life balance. The theoretical assumptions of the study are related to the Job Demands-Resources Theory (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017) and Kalliath and Brough’s (2008) concept of work–life balance. The cross-sectional study used an online survey method, with 222 employees from various organizations participating, 85% of whom were women, with an average age of 32.3 years. Data were collected by using scales measuring job demands, resources, burnout (Bakker, 2014), work engagement (Schaufeli et al., 2017), and work–life balance (Brough et al., 2014). Analysis using descriptive statistics, correlation, and structural equation modeling has revealed that burnout mediates the relationships between job demands and work–life balance and between job resources and work–life balance. Work engagement was positively associated with work–life balance but did not mediate the relationship between job resources and work–life balance. Further research directions and practical recommendations are discussed.
In this article, we present the experiences of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy clients related to their therapists’ personal self-disclosure. Although this phenomenon has been studied, the research findings remain contradictory. Moreover, previous studies have focused on therapists rather than their clients, and this phenomenon has not been explored in Lithuania at all. Therefore, through this study, we aimed to reveal and describe the experiences of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy clients related to their therapists’ personal self-disclosure in the therapeutic process. A qualitative research strategy was chosen for the study. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed by using the reflexive thematic analysis method. Eight clients of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy participated in the study. Three main themes and eleven subthemes were identified, revealing the subjective experiences of psychotherapy clients related to therapists’ personal self-disclosure. The results of the study revealed that, when used appropriately, therapists’ personal self-disclosure can be beneficial to clients, while inappropriate or overly personal self-disclosure may create difficulties. Furthermore, the study results show that long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy clients perceive self-disclosure in different forms and emphasize the importance of boundaries in self-disclosure.
Background. Social media is characterized by a habit-forming virtual architecture, which leads some users to exhibit compulsive behavior. There are clear links between social anxiety and compulsive online behavior, but it is not evident whether social anxiety is a risk factor for compulsive behavior or a consequence of time spent on social media. Aim. This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal cross-lagged relationship between different types of social anxiety and compulsive social media use. Method. The longitudinal sample consisted of 220 social media users who filled out the questionnaire twice with an approximate interval of 8 months between the data points. Compulsive use of social networks and four types of social anxiety arising from content sharing, privacy concerns, interactions with unfamiliar persons, and negative evaluation were assessed. We tested for autoregressive and cross-lagged effects between key study variables using structural equation modeling. Results. The results revealed that initial interaction and self-evaluation anxiety predicted later compulsive social media use but not vice versa, compulsive use predicted later content-sharing anxiety but not vice versa, and there were no cross-lagged associations between compulsive use and privacy concern anxiety. Conclusion. Such results suggest that the chicken-and-egg dilemma between social anxiety and compulsive online behavior may have different solutions, depending on the specific forms of social anxiety. Theoretical and practical implications of the obtained results are also discussed.
Paauglystė – sudėtingas laikotarpis, pasižymintis rizikingo elgesio apraiškomis, identiteto, gyvensenos ir socialinių ryšių formavimusi. Vaidmens modelio turėjimas paauglių pasirinkimus gali pakreipti tiek į sveikai gyvensenai palankią, tiek į žalingą pusę. Dėl to šiame tyrime Lietuvos moksleivių gyvensenos ir sveikatos tyrimo (HBSC) pagrindu buvo siekiama išsiaiškinti, kokius vaidmens modelius turi paaugliai ir kaip tai gali prognozuoti jų gyvensenos pasirinkimus. Tyrime dalyvavo 6628 5–11 klasių moksleiviai iš 124 Lietuvos mokyklų. Buvo vertinama, kokius vaidmens modelius turi paaugliai (jei turi) ir kaip tai prognozuoja jų miego trukmės, fizinio aktyvumo (kasdienio ir intensyvaus), mitybos, rūkymo, alkoholio vartojimo ir socialinių tinklų naudojimo rodiklius. Nustatyta, kad didžioji dalis (71 proc.) paauglių turi vaidmens modelius, dažniausiai šeimos narius (33 proc.), draugus (24 proc.), socialinių tinklų įžymybes (15 proc.), sportininkus (12 proc.) ir televizijos žvaigždes (11 proc.). Vaidmens modelio turėjimas dažniausiai prognozavo sveikai gyvensenai palankesnius pasirinkimus, labiausiai – šeimos nario (palankesni miego, fizinio aktyvumo ir sveikos mitybos rodikliai) ir sportininko (palankesni fizinio aktyvumo ir mitybos rodikliai) modeliai. Mažiausiai sveikai gyvensenai palankūs vaidmens modeliai buvo draugas (palankesni fizinio aktyvumo ir mitybos rodikliai, prastesni rūkymo ir socialinių tinklų naudojimo rodikliai) ir socialinių tinklų įžymybė (prastesni miego ir socialinių tinklų naudojimo rodikliai).
While aging is a natural and inevitable phenomenon, aging anxiety remains an under-researched aspect of the aging experience. The individual’s tendency to objectify one’s body might be related to more anxiety about the aging process. In this study, we aimed to explore how aging anxiety is related to body objectification. A total sample of 525 participants, ranging in age from 18 to 82, was included in the study. Correlational and regression analyses revealed a link between aging anxiety and body objectification. Body objectification dimensions, as well as worse subjective health, were significant predictors of the overall aging anxiety and most of its dimensions. Gender and not having children were also significant predictors for some of the aging anxiety dimensions.
We investigated the extent to which different aspects of home literacy environment (HLE) relate to literacy skills among Grade 2 students in Lithuania. The participants were Lithuanian second-graders (n = 522; 48% girls; Mage = 8.29 years, SD = .32) and their parents (88.3% mothers). Children were tested in their language and literacy skills; whereas parents completed questionnaires concerning HLE. We ran three hierarchical regression models to predict children’s sentence reading fluency, spelling to dictation, and reading comprehension. Control variables (parental education, child gender, vocabulary and word reading fluency) were entered at the first step; the four variables of HLE (teaching of literacy, reading to a child, access to literacy resources, child’s own independent reading) were entered at the second step. The results showed that HLE variables added a significant amount of explained variance to the regression models (5.4% for sentence reading fluency, 4.8% for spelling, and 4.9% for reading comprehension). Overall, the results suggest that in order to promote children’s literacy skills in Grade 2 most effectively, parents should provide access to literacy resources and create opportunities for children’s independent reading. When considering all HLE factors together in one analysis, children’s actual independent reading of the reading materials emerged as an important factor in their success in reading and spelling.
Positive and Negative work reflection are important constructs in the field of organizational psychology. To measure these constructs, reliable measures are needed. In order to summarize the findings from different studies, a reliability generalization meta-analysis was performed. A literature search in six databases was conducted. In total, 216 records were found, while 26 papers were included in the analysis. Positive and Negative work reflection scales by Fritz and Sonnentag (2005) and Binnewies et al. (2009) were analyzed. Analysis revealed that internal consistency varied from 0.90 to 0.93. Additionally, the region in which a study was conducted moderated part of the results.
Mamos ir vaiko santykis yra pagrindas tolesnei vaiko raidai bei mamos psichologinei gerovei. Tai, kaip mamos išgyvena šį santykį, priklauso nuo įvairių asmeninių, socialinių ir kultūrinių veiksnių. Šio tyrimo tikslas – išsiaiškinti, kaip pirmą kartą mamomis tapusios moterys išgyvena santykį su vaiku praėjus metams nuo jo gimimo, susitelkiant į naratyvus, formuojančius jų požiūrį į motinystę. Tyrime dalyvavo 8 moterys (27–39 metų), kurių pirmagimiams tyrimo metu buvo 12–18 mėnesių. Tyrimas atliktas taikant kokybinių pusiau struktūruotų interviu metodą ir naratyvo analizę. Naratyvas šiame tyrime suprantamas kaip asmeninių patirčių pateikimas, kuris formuojamas tiek individualių požiūrių, tiek platesnių socialinių ir kultūrinių veiksnių. Analizuojant duomenis išskirtos penkios temos, kurios reprezentuoja jaunų mamų tapatybės aspektus ir naratyvų, formuojančių motinystės suvokimą, šaltinius: 1) santykio vystymasis nuo tam tikro konkretaus momento; 2) vaiko asmenybė ir charakteris; 3) pokyčiai tapus mama; 4) aplinkinių palaikymo svarba motinystės pradžioje; 5) buvimas gera mama – besąlyginis vaiko priėmimas ir meilė. Tyrimo dalyvės sakė, kad motinystės patirtis yra reikšmingas jų gyvenimo įvykis, sukeliantis tapatybės kaitą, susijusią su džiaugsmu, savęs praradimo jausmu ir susiliejimu su vaiku. „Tapimo mama“ patirtis buvo suvokiama skirtingai – nuo nėštumo laikotarpio iki momento, kai vaikas pirmą kartą pavadino moterį „mama“. Rezultatuose išryškėjo įvairūs motinystės naratyvai: motinystė kaip pilnatvė, kaip instinktas ir visuomenėje kuriamas „geros mamos“ įvaizdis. Tyrimas papildo psichologinę literatūrą apie motinystės patirtis, pabrėždamas glaudų ryšį tarp jaunų motinų individualių išgyvenimų ir platesnių socialinių bei kultūrinių motinystės naratyvų.
People have a basic need to believe in a world that is just, that is, a place where benevolence is rewarded, and misdemeanors are punished. Experiences of unfair events (e.g., a war) bring doubts about the justness of the world leading to attempts to re-establish righteousness by objective or subjective means (defense strategies). Importantly, it has become fairly common to encounter events which are not limited to the current place, and which affect people whom one may not otherwise acknowledge because contemporary media helps to discover what is happening beyond immediate human perception. This separation between a person and a given scenario is described as psychological distance. In order to inspect how psychological distance influences beliefs in a just-world and its defense, an experimental study was conducted on 60 participants. After random assignment to proximal and distal psychological distance groups, the subjects were exposed to just-world altering news articles about war. Before and after the articles, the just-world belief was evaluated, and defensive reactions to the stimuli were assessed. The results demonstrate that people perceive psychologically proximal and distal stimuli as similarly offensive to just-world beliefs. In addition, people are prone to use more rational strategies to defend justice in psychologically close conditions, and more nonrational strategies when events are psychologically distant. This study provides insights into psychological distance effects on just-world perception and defense strategies, which may have an impact on forming a positive or negative view towards victims.
Somatic complaints are highly prevalent among young adults and can significantly impair both psychological well-being and physical functioning. This study aimed to examine the associations between somatic complaints, mentalization, and stress coping strategies in young adults, a triad that remains underexplored in the current literature. A sample of 115 individuals (49 men, 66 women) aged 18–29 years completed an online survey assessing somatic complaints (Giessen Subjective Complaints List-24), mentalization (The Mentalization Scale, Dimitrijević et al., 2018), and stress coping strategies (Lithuanian Coping with Stress Questionnaire – Revised, Valickas et al., 2010). A network analysis approach was used to explore the complex interconnections among these constructs. Findings revealed that motivation to mentalize and self-oriented mentalization were the most central variables in the network, highlighting their importance in regulating stress and somatic symptoms. Notably, lower self-mentalization was strongly associated with greater somatic complaints and the use of maladaptive coping strategies. Somatic symptoms formed a densely connected subnetwork, with emotional venting emerging as the strongest directly linked maladaptive strategy. Conversely, adaptive coping strategies were positively associated with various dimensions of mentalization and appeared to buffer the impact of stress on somatic health. These results underscore the importance of self-reflective and motivational components of mentalization, as well as adaptive coping, in understanding and addressing somatic complaints. Enhancing these factors may offer promising therapeutic targets for interventions to reduce somatic symptom burden in young adults.
This study investigated whether the relationship between chronic pain and depression in older adults can be moderated by successful aging, based on the SOC theory (Baltes & Baltes, 1990). Its participants included 106 individuals aged 65 to 93 (M = 72.12, SD = 6.39), of whom, 89.6% were female and 10.4% male. Chronic pain was assessed by using the Pain Intensity, Enjoyment of Life and General Activity Scale (Krebs et al., 2009), depression was measured by using the Geriatric Depression Scale (Sheikh & Yesavage, 1986), and successful aging was assessed by using the Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Questionnaire (Freund & Baltes, 2002; Segura-Camacho et al., 2018). A cross-sectional correlational design was applied by using correlational and moderation regression analyses. The results showed a positive association between chronic pain and depression. Notably, the compensation strategy moderated this relationship: if using the compensation strategy less frequently, greater chronic pain predicted higher depression, while using compensation strategy more frequently the relationship between chronic pain and depression weakened. These findings highlight the role of compensation in moderating the association between depression and chronic pain in older adults. Despite its limitations, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of opportunities for improving psychological support for older adults experiencing chronic pain.
Straipsnyje pristatomas profesinio perdegimo fenomenas tarp praktikuojančių psichoterapeutų – itin aktuali problema, tačiau mokslinėje literatūroje stebėtinai mažai nagrinėjama kokybiniais metodais. Įdomu, kad profesinis perdegimas tarp psichoterapeutų nemažai tyrinėtas kiekybiškai, tačiau nėra atlikta sistemingų kokybinių tyrimų ir metaanalizių, atsakančių į klausimą, kaip psichoterapeutai patiria profesinį perdegimą (Vivolo et al., 2024). Tyrimo tikslas buvo suprasti ir aprašyti psichoterapeutų profesinio perdegimo patyrimą. Tyrime dalyvavo 5 profesinį perdegimą psichoterapinės praktikos metu patyrę psichoterapeutai, kurių amžius svyravo nuo 31 iki 47 m. (M = 40). Tyrimui atlikti pasirinkta kokybinio tyrimo strategija, duomenys surinkti pusiau struktūruoto interviu būdu, o analizuoti pasitelkiant teminės analizės metodą (Braun & Clarke, 2021). Tyrimo duomenys sutampa su kai kuriais mokslinėje literatūroje rastais duomenimis apie psichoterapeutų perdegimą ir atskleidė, kad daugelis literatūroje įvardytų prevencinių priemonių praktikoje lieka laiku neįgyvendintos, o pagalbos gavimo stigma bei darbo specifikos problemos dažnai nėra atliepiamos psichoterapeutų praktiniame kontekste. Tyrime aptinkamos 4 pagrindinės psichoterapeutų profesinio perdegimo patyrimo temos: 1) palaipsninė kelionė iki perdegimo; 2) darbo kultūra, formuojanti perdegimą; 3) perdegimas ir asmenybė: buvimas daugiau nei psichoterapeutu; 4) darbo specifikos reikšmė perdegimui. Šios temos ne tik atskleidė, kaip psichoterapeutai išgyvena profesinio perdegimo fenomeną, bet ir nurodė, kad perdegimo pasireiškimui įtakos turi išoriniai veiksniai, kaip antai darbo sąlygos, kolegų palaikymas, darbo specifika, bei vidiniai veiksniai, tokie kaip psichoterapeutų asmenybė, gebėjimas brėžti ribas, asmeniniai tikslai ir standartai, asmeninių poreikių paisymas.
