This study examined offensive possession duration and fast-attack efficiency as performance indicators in the EHF EURO 2026 Men's Handball Championship, investigating how temporal patterns of offense differentiate winning from losing teams. Play-by-play data from 65 matches involving 24 teams were ingested into a relational MySQL 8.0 database, comprising 11,671 logged actions, and analyzed using Python 3.x. Possession duration varied systematically with transition context: turnover-triggered possessions were the shortest and most effective, whereas period-start possessions were the longest and least successful. Turnover-triggered possessions were the shortest in duration (mean: 19.8 s; n = 784) and yielded the highest success rate (63.1%), whereas possessions initiated following an opponent's seven-meter throw were the longest (mean: 46.3 s) while still maintaining a relatively high success rate (56.0%). The tournament mean possession duration was 30.6 s; fast attacks (≤15 s) accounted for 30.3% of all possessions and yielded a success rate of 53.1%. Winning teams demonstrated significantly higher attack success rates and a greater proportion of fast attacks than losing teams. These findings confirm that offensive tempo is a meaningful and measurable indicator of performance in elite handball, with systematic associations across transition context, match outcome, and tournament ranking.
The Relative Age Effect (RAE) describes the overrepresentation of athletes born earlier in a selection year, potentially providing developmental advantages during youth sport. Although widely reported in football development pathways, its persistence into senior elite football remains unclear, particularly across sex, competition level and playing position. This study examined birthdate distributions among male and female footballers competing domestically in England and internationally between 2022 and 2024. The sample comprised 2417 professional footballers (1400 males and 1017 females) representing the Premier League, Women's Super League, FIFA World Cup and FIFA Women's World Cup. Player birthdates and positions were categorised into calendar-year quartiles, with chi-square goodness-of-fit tests assessing deviations from expected distributions and odds ratios calculated to assess quartile differences. No significant RAE was identified across overall male or female cohorts, or domestic and international competition groups. However, variation was observed across specific positional and competition contexts, including isolated significant differences identified among international male central forwards. These findings suggest that RAE is reduced at senior elite level compared with youth football, with remaining variation influenced by contextual factors including competition structure, sex and positional demands. RAE within elite football therefore appears context-dependent rather than a universal characteristic of player representation.
Lack of fun has been described as a prominent reason for dropping out of soccer. Hence, understanding what makes soccer fun is critical to promoting continued participation. Efforts to facilitate fun experiences require insight into adolescents’ priorities regarding what constitutes fun in soccer. Based on the fun integration theory's fun factors and determinants, we aimed to explore the prioritization of those factors and determinants among adolescents in Sweden and investigate similarities and differences in their prioritization by gender, age, perceived competence, and sports program type. Participants were 494 adolescent soccer players (356 boys, 137 girls, and 1 other) from six soccer clubs and one soccer-focused upper secondary school from urban and rural areas in Sweden. Results showed Positive Team Dynamics, Trying Hard, Positive Coaching, and Learning and Improving were the highest ranked fun factors among Swedish adolescent soccer players, with consistent patterns across gender, age, perceived competence, and sport program type. From a theoretical perspective, the findings provide further support for the fun integration theory and the hierarchical structure of fun, reflecting the youth athletes’ fun ethos. Practically, the study findings highlight that in Swedish adolescent soccer fun may be supported by positive coaching practices, fostering team cohesion, emphasizing effort, and supporting skill development.
The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of undertaking a swimming protocol suitable for generating estimates from a novel physiological performance analysis software (INSCYD) in a club environment, while also evaluating its reliability. Eleven highly-trained swimmers (16.7 ± 0.9 years, 176.3 ± 5.3 cm, 70.6 ± 7.2 kg) completed the INSCYD protocol (2 × 400 m then 2 × 200 m at incremental intensities; performed twice) and 7 × 200 m incremental step test (IST) on non-consecutive days. The time taken to complete each protocol and the associated number of lactate strips were monitored in each session. Blood lactate (BLa) and swimming times were recorded as inputs for generating physiological estimates from the INSCYD software and the IST protocol. The mean differences in the estimates of the anaerobic threshold for each protocol were compared, alongside Pearson correlations. Bland-Altman plots, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), technical error of the mean (TEM) and coefficients of variation (CV) assessed test-retest reliability of the INSCYD software estimates. Completing the INSCYD protocol required more time and more lactate strips, with large effects (Hedge's g = 2.0–3.7). Compared to estimates from the IST protocol, mean differences of 0.001 to 0.094 m.s −1 were found of the INSCYD anaerobic threshold, however most estimates were significantly correlated ( r = 0.62–0.91, p = 0.0001–0.05). ICCs were poor to moderate (0.05–0.59), TEM and CV were low, except for maximal rate of lactate accumulation (V˙La max ). Due to the increased resources, differences in estimates, and poor to moderate reliability, it is unclear whether the INSCYD software and its estimates are suitable for widespread implementation in daily training environments.
Category 1 Premier League academies operate within a clearly defined audit framework with explicit requirements for staffing, coach qualifications, and player development processes. While such structures support professionalisation, they also raise important questions about how coaching is recognised and developed. Drawing on data from 124 full-time coaches employed across 18 Category 1 academies, this study examines relationships between football qualifications, formal education, and coaches’ self-perceptions of their coaching proficiency. Specifically, we sought to: (i) describe the role profiles, coaching experience, football qualifications, and educational backgrounds of full-time Category 1 academy coaches; and (ii) examine how coaches’ self-perceptions of knowledge, skills, and attributes vary by qualification, role, and educational background. Our aim was to inform broader debates about professionalisation and the development of coaching expertise. Our findings suggest that the workforce is highly qualified, experienced, and formally educated. However, differences in self-perceptions were limited. Pro Licence holders reported higher scores than UEFA A/AYA and UEFA B Licence holders, while the only significant educational-status contrast was between the postgraduate certificate/diploma group and the foundation-degree-or-lower group. Self-perceptions were more closely associated with football qualification than with professional role. While increasing professionalisation in sport coaching may be desirable, the development of coaching expertise cannot be reduced to qualification attainment, role status, or years of experience.
The single-leg squat (SLS) is commonly used to assess lower-extremity neuromuscular performance. However, the effect of arm position on vastus medialis activation during the SLS remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different arm positions on vastus medialis activation during the SLS in recreational athletes. Twenty recreational athletes (10 males, 10 females; age 25.15 ± 3.39 years) performed the SLS in four arm-position conditions: arms free, arms flexed at 90°, hands on hips, and arms crossed over the chest. Surface electromyography was used to assess mean and peak vastus medialis activation (%MVIC). Differences among conditions were analyzed using the Friedman test and Bonferroni-corrected Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Mean vastus medialis activation differed significantly among arm positions ( p < 0.001). Activation was greater with the arms crossed over the chest than with the arms free ( p < 0.001), arms flexed at 90° ( p = 0.005), or hands on hips ( p = 0.006). Peak activation was greater with the arms crossed over the chest than with the arms free ( p = 0.002). Arm position influences vastus medialis activation during the SLS. These findings suggest that arm position should be considered when using the SLS for assessment and exercise progression.
Talent identification in youth football is a critical process for recognizing players with the requisite aptitude and long-term potential. This study investigated the influence of maturity status and relative age on physical performance metrics in Chinese male youth footballers aged U13–U15, aiming to provide empirical data for the development of a more equitable and scientific talent selection framework. A cross-sectional design was employed to assess the anthropometric characteristics and physical performance of 199 Chinese male youth footballers using standardized testing protocols. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the independent and combined effects of chronological age, maturity status, and relative age on physical performance. Regarding relative age effect, a significant effect was observed in the U13 group and the total sample ( P < 0.01), but it diminished and became non-significant in the U14 and U15 groups ( P > 0.05). Maturity status was a significant predictor of most performance measures ( P < 0.01). Relative age demonstrated a weak yet significant independent effect solely on the 30-meter sprint ( β = 0.13, P < 0.05) and pull-ups ( β = −0.15, P < 0.05). No significant interaction effects were observed between maturity status and relative age for any performance variable (∣ β ∣ ≤ 0.14, P > 0.05). In conclusion, maturity status is a robust predictor of physical performance, while relative age exerts a task-specific influence that weakens with chronological age. These findings confirm they are distinct concepts and should be treated separately in talent identification.
National teams increasingly rely on players competing in elite domestic and international leagues, yet it remains unclear whether this reflects a genuine performance advantage or simply the fact that stronger teams export more players to top-level competitions. Using open data from all 48 teams participating in the 2026 FIFA World Cup, we examined whether squad league exposure was independently associated with group-stage attacking performance after accounting for baseline team strength. Squad exposure was quantified using the proportion of players competing in Europe's top five leagues together with additional indicators describing squad composition. The primary outcome was group-stage expected-goals difference per match, while advancement to the knockout stage served as a secondary outcome. Associations were analysed using heteroscedasticity-consistent regression models, false-discovery-rate correction and repeated cross-validation. Teams with a greater proportion of players competing in Europe's top five leagues produced higher expected-goals differences during the group stage. However, this relationship was substantially attenuated after adjustment for pre-tournament Elo rating, indicating that most of the apparent association reflected underlying team quality rather than an independent effect of league exposure. Predictive analyses showed that squad composition explained only a modest proportion of performance variance and added little information once baseline team strength was known. Match-process variables remained considerably more informative for predicting tournament progression. Overall, squad league exposure is best understood as an indicator of established team strength rather than an independent determinant of attacking performance.
Despite evidence challenging the notion of fixed, biologically based athletic differences between girls and boys, gender essentialist beliefs persist among sport coaches. Such beliefs sustain a binary and hierarchical view of gender that can shape girls’ development, participation, and enjoyment in sport. A sport-specific instrument for assessing these beliefs has recently been developed, but no equivalent measure has been available for Turkish coaching contexts. The aim of the present study was therefore to adapt the Gender Essentialist Beliefs Towards Girls in Sport Scale (GEGS) into Turkish and to examine its psychometric properties. The scale was translated and culturally adapted following established cross-cultural guidelines and was assessed with 311 athletic coaches (187 men, 124 women). Confirmatory factor analysis using a robust diagonally weighted least squares estimator supported a single-factor structure for an 18-item version, with good fit after two weakly performing items were removed and a small number of theoretically defensible residual correlations were freed (χ 2 /df = 2.29, CFI = .965, TLI = .959, GFI = .971, RMSEA = .065, SRMR = .080). The scale showed high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .89; McDonald's ω = .91) and showed metric invariance across coach gender, with a further constraint on residual variances producing no meaningful decrement in fit. Weak correlations with the coach–athlete relationship supported discriminant validity. Overall, the Turkish GEGS provides a sound and economical tool for research and coach education, and future research should replicate these findings across competitive levels, regions, and sports.
Objectives To synthesize current evidence on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in football talent identification. Design Systematic review. Method This review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and was registered in PROSPERO. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, and ACM Digital Library were searched for studies published between 2016 and 2025. Eligible studies applied AI-related methods to football talent identification or player evaluation. After duplicate removal and screening, 24 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results Twenty-four studies were included. Supervised machine learning was used in 19 studies (79%), deep learning in 14 (58%), ensemble learning in 11 (46%), and other specialized approaches in 5 (21%). Technical indicators were most frequently assessed, followed by physiological, psychological, and tactical variables. Although several models showed promising performance, comparability was limited by differences in samples, features, outcomes, and validation methods. Conclusions AI-based approaches may support multidimensional football talent identification, but current evidence is limited by uneven data quality, limited longitudinal validation, interpretability concerns, and ethical issues related to privacy and bias.
Wearable resistance (WR) is used across multiple sport disciplines to add sport-specific mechanical loading during athletic movements. This review aimed to map the breadth of WR application across sports, and evaluate the biomechanical effects on sports-specific tasks to elicit its relevance to badminton-specific performance. A systematic database search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and SPORTDiscus was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for scoping reviews and Arksey and O’Malley guidelines. Of the 2987 articles identified, 56 studies across 12 sports and athletic populations were included in this review. The included studies employed cyclic (22 studies) and acyclic (26 studies) and a mixed intervention (8 studies) movement type. However, among these, badminton-specific WR studies were conducted in only four warm-up interventions. This review shows growing adoption of WR in sports-specific training, with its effects shaped by load magnitude, placement and the specific movement task being performed WR. Trunk-loaded WR warm-up at 5–10% body mas (BM) was the most evidence-supported application in badminton for enhancing change-of-direction (COD) speed, however, due to the limited literature, coaches and athletes should be cautious when interpreting because this result is not absolute. Future research should focus on areas highlighted in this review, including footwork, overhead strokes and landing mechanics.
This study examines the impact of age (U17/U21) and match type (friendly/official) on external load indicators in elite youth football players during key developmental transitions. Twenty-nine male players (U21: n = 13; U17: n = 16) from a Chinese professional club were tracked over a full season (U17: 37 matches; U21: 29 matches) using 10 Hz GPS. Data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U tests, Cliff's Delta (δ), and Hodges-Lehmann median differences. In official matches, all external load indicators for U21 players were significantly higher than U17s, with the largest effect size in running distance at 15–20 km/h (δ = 0.593) versus total distance (δ = 0.202). In friendly matches, U21s remained superior in distance >25 km/h, accelerations, distance 15–20 km/h, and maximum speed, though the max speed gap narrowed by 21.94% compared to official matches. Except for maximum speed and distance >25 km/h, U21 external loads were significantly higher in official matches than friendly ones, particularly regarding deceleration. Conversely, U17 running distances at 15–25 km/h were significantly higher in friendly matches (p < 0.05). Therefore, this study found that U21 and U17 players performed better in official matches than in friendly matches; deceleration control ability is a key indicator of U21 players’ adaptation to high-intensity competitions; the unique negative correlation pattern of ‘medium-high intensity load-match type’ in the U17 group may be related to the decline in running performance caused by psychological pressure, conservative tactics or delayed decision-making in official matches.
Sport officiating has received limited attention despite its importance for sustaining sport systems. This study explored how youth basketball referees in Brazil construct meaning around their training, development, and professional experiences. Guided by Self-Determination Theory and a social constructionist perspective, a qualitative design was adopted. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six referees and two referee administrators involved in regional and state competitions. Data were analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Three themes were generated: (1) Entry and progression in basketball refereeing: between opportunity and autonomy; (2) Training and development in basketball refereeing: building competence; and (3) Social environment and recognition in basketball refereeing. Findings indicated that autonomy, competence, and relatedness were co-constructed through informal learning, organisational structures, and social interactions. While informal learning and social relationships supported development, limited structured training and organisational support constrained psychological need satisfaction. The findings underscore the importance of theory-informed referee development programmes.
Understanding match dynamics is essential for optimizing performance in professional padel. However, limited research has simultaneously examined rally length based on shot count, point construction, and finishing shot effectiveness while considering sex-based differences and within-match dynamics. The aim was to analyze the contextual and tactical characteristics of point construction and final shot outcomes in men's and women's professional padel. A total of 1082 points from eight matches played on the 2025 Premier Padel circuit were analyzed using systematic observational methodology. Variables included rally length, point outcome, finishing shot type and effectiveness, set, and point importance. Results showed that the serving pair won the majority of points in both sexes. Men played a relatively greater proportion of points in the second set, whereas women did so in the third set. Men's matches were characterized by shorter rallies and a higher proportion of winners, while women displayed longer rallies and more unforced errors. Rally length differed significantly between sexes, with men showing more short rallies and women more long rallies. Men most frequently ended points with smashes, whereas women primarily used forehand and backhand volleys. Women also exhibited a higher mean number of shots per rally. Additionally, rally length significantly influenced both point outcome and finishing shot type in both sexes. These findings reveal sex-specific tactical demands and highlight rally length as a key performance indicator, providing practical insights for designing training strategies tailored to competitive match behavior.
The Football Video Support (FVS) system was officially introduced into football in 2025 to improve the referees’ officiating accuracy. This study aims to investigate the influence of FVS on elite football matches compared to Video Assistant Referee (VAR). This study compared 52 matches played in the 2023 FIFA U20 World Cup with VAR implementation and 52 matches played in the 2025 FIFA U20 World Cup following the introduction of FVS using Generalized Linear Model (GLM) and means comparison. Eleven variables were gathered for each game: first half match time, second half match time, full match time, fouls, penalties, goals, yellow cards, red cards, offsides, corners and free kicks. The results showed that after the introduction of FVS, the total duration of the first half, the total duration of the second half, the overall match duration, and the number of corners all decreased significantly. Notably, the reductions in match time were less pronounced in the first two rounds of the group stage than in the final round, suggesting that the effect of FVS on match time may vary according to match round, which may offer guidance for future investigations into FVS and VAR. The findings may help football practitioners and fans better understand the effect of FVS on elite football matches and the key differences between FVS and VAR, and inform FVS related regulations.
There are limited studies which consider the impact of massage gun percussive therapy (PT) on jump performance and strength. Protocols in existing studies are heterogeneous highlighting a need to consider the impact of study design on physiological measures. This study aimed to determine the most effective protocol, among the eight being examined, for improving countermovement jump (CMJ) net impulse and lower body isometric strength, and support future research by providing protocol validation. Thirty-five adults followed two protocols; three sessions a week at either 2100 rpm and increasing the speed from session-to-session (1750 to 2100 to 2400 rpm). Massage gun PT was applied to the quadriceps, gluteals, hamstrings and calves of both legs for 60 s per muscle group. Pre- and post-data were collected in all sessions using a hand-held dynamometer and ‘My Jump 2’ app allowing eight protocols to be examined using paired-samples t-tests. The level of significance set for the study was p ≤ 0.05. The most effective protocol for significant gains in CMJ net impulse was applying massage gun PT three times a week at 2100 rpm producing average increases of 3.2%. The most effective protocol for significant isometric strength gains involved incremental speeds across the week (1750 to 2100 to 2400 rpm) offering average increases of 10.1%. These protocols can be used by practitioners and the public to target improvements in CMJ net impulse performance and lower body isometric strength, and by researchers in support of homogenous analysis between future studies.
Sleep plays a pivotal role in athletes’ recovery and performance, yet research consistently shows that many athletes experience suboptimal sleep. Existing screening questionnaires typically rely on cut-off scores to classify athletes (e.g., good vs. poor sleepers), offering a limited and often simplistic view of sleep quality. By moving beyond these arbitrary thresholds, the present study adopts a person-centred approach to uncover distinct sleep profiles among elite athletes and explores how these profiles relate to well-being and ill-being. A total of 528 elite athletes (273 women) completed questionnaires assessing sleep, well-being, and ill-being. Sleep characteristics were measured using the Athens Insomnia Scale and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Well-being was assessed using the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire subdimension for individual performance satisfaction, while ill-being was measured using the Burnout Assessment Tool short form adapted to the sport context. Latent profile analysis was then conducted to identify distinct sleep profiles, and multilinear regression analyses examined their associations with well-being and ill-being outcomes. Six distinct sleep profiles emerged. Two profiles, characterized by mean sleep durations of less than seven hours per night, were associated with significantly higher levels of ill-being and lower levels of well-being compared to other profiles. These findings highlight the importance of sleep duration, specifically the 7 h-threshold, in athletes’ psychological health. Sleep profiling offers a more nuanced and practical approach than conventional cut-off-based classifications, supporting individualised monitoring and interventions in elite sport.
This study was designed to explore the longitudinal changes in lower-limb isometric and eccentric strength, vertical jump performance, and sprint speed under similar training regimes but across different positional roles (forwards vs. backs). Participants completed an ≈8-week pre-season program (≈4 sessions/week) comprising training blocks (plyometrics/ballistics, sprint-speed, resistance, endurance); testing was performed one week before and one week after the program. Twenty-four highly trained male rugby players volunteered to participate in the study and were subsequently classified into backs (n = 11, height: 1.79 ± 0.04 m, body mass [BM]: 79.0 ± 5.9 kg) and forwards (n = 13, height: 1.87 ± 0.06 m, BM: 100.0 ± 10.3 kg). Participants completed a testing battery including a 30-meter (m) linear sprint, vertical jump assessments, and lower-limb strength measures: isometric calf (ISO CALF ), hip adduction (ISO ADD ) and abduction (ISO ABD ), hamstring at 90°–20° (ISO 90–20 ), and eccentric hamstring strength via the Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE). Sprint performance improved only in backs (p = 0.022; ES = −0.85). Isometric and eccentric strength assessments demonstrated consistent reductions in maximum impulse for ISO ADD and ISO ABD , irrespective of task, limb, or positional group. Conversely, only backs showed significant increases in maximum force (p = 0.002 to 0.059; ES = 0.71 to 1.41) in ISO CALF , ISO 90–20 , and NHE across both limbs. In conclusion, these findings suggest that, during the initial pre-season period, backs exhibited more favorable sprint and strength adaptations to a general training program than forwards.
The benefits of strength and conditioning (S&C) for improving tennis performance and reducing injuries have been widely recognized. However, the S&C practices employed and perspectives held by those delivering S&C in tennis remain underexplored. Therefore, this study investigated the S&C practices and perspectives of Brazilian tennis S&C coaches. Thirty-four coaches completed an online survey comprising six sections: (a) written informed consent; (b) background information; (c) education, qualifications, and prescription; (d) views on S&C; (e) exercise selection; and (f) issues and improvements. Frequency analysis was used to report responses to fixed-response questions, and thematic analysis was used for open-ended questions. The main results indicated that S&C coaches were primarily responsible for delivering S&C programs (100%), and that S&C information was predominantly sourced from S&C coaches (48%) and the scientific literature (58%). Strength and conditioning were deemed very important for key tennis skills, including serve, forehand, backhand, volleys, smash, and court movement (60–75%). Similarly, S&C was considered very important for the development of strength, speed, power, agility, and injury prevention (70–85%). Novel findings included prioritizing tennis-specific exercises and integrating physical preparation directly into on-court training. Furthermore, results highlight potential gaps between recommended guidelines and real-world application, supporting the development of research-informed and sport-specific programs.
This study explored how youth sport coaches in South Korea define success and the strategies they use to foster a motivational climate. Guided by achievement goal theory and interpreted through the TARGET framework, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 recreational youth sport coaches. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three themes emerged regarding coaches’ perspectives on success: Relation and Development, which emphasized relational cohesion, enjoyment, resilience, and skill development; Growth Through Process, Not Outcome, which highlighted personal growth, life skills, and learning through challenge; and Negotiating Sociocultural Pressures, which reflected the influence of parental expectations and Korea's academic culture on coaching practices. Coaches generally viewed success as extending beyond competitive outcomes and prioritized developmental and relational indicators of achievement. Regarding coaching strategies, one overarching theme emerged: Culturally Situated Coaching Adaptations within the TARGET Framework. Coaches described using individualized coaching adaptations, tailored feedback and praise, structured goal setting and evaluation, strategic team formation, balancing enjoyment with skill mastery, and autonomy within coach-led structures to create supportive motivational environments. Findings suggest that Korean youth sport coaches combine task-oriented principles with culturally embedded values emphasizing relational harmony, discipline, and collective responsibility. These results highlight how motivational climates are shaped through the interaction of universal developmental principles and local sociocultural influences, offering implications for culturally responsive coaching and youth development in non-Western sport contexts.
