We conducted a quasi‑experimental evaluation of a six‑session, classroom psychoeducation informed by Relational Frame Theory (RFT) and integrating Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to reduce adolescent test anxiety (TA). Two of three 8th‑grade classes were selected by lot and assigned to intervention or control (n = 37; ages 12–13). Primary outcome was Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) Total; secondary outcomes were TAI Worry, TAI Emotionality, and Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire–Youth 8 (AFQ‑Y8). Analyses used pretest‑adjusted ANCOVA with Holm–Bonferroni across secondary endpoints; with one cluster per arm, heteroskedasticity-consistent (HC3) standard errors provided design sensitivity. At post, the intervention scored lower than controls on TAI Total and AFQ‑Y8; Worry and Emotionality did not survive family-wise correction among secondary endpoints. We assessed detectability using minimum detectable effects (80
User testing, also referred to as developmental testing or formative evaluation, is an instructional design methodology which helps program developers and instructors refine their teaching tools and programs. This step-by-step process allows instructors to identify how individuals respond to the instructions developed while they use the tool or complete the program. Doing so gives instructors the opportunity to create desired stimulus control relations before employing the resources needed to conduct an experimental evaluation. Despite the potential usefulness of user testing, the process is not commonly detailed within the literature. The purpose of this manuscript is to detail a case example of user testing, in which a decision tree based on a concept analysis of assent, consent, and compulsion, was developed. The decision tree and 150 corresponding written vignettes underwent user testing with 15 different behavior analysts across different points in time. A description of the user testing process and the changes that occurred throughout the development of the decision tree and vignettes will be outlined. An overview of each step of the decision tree and applied examples are also be provided.
Disruptive behaviors can function as mands and this may limit speaker-listener interactions. In the current study, our objective was to empirically examine the function of disruptive behaviors in three Brazilian children with ASD to ultimately reduce the frequency of these behaviors. We conducted a functional analysis of disruptive behaviors and then taught participants to mand for access to tangible items based on the results of this assessment. All participants learned to emit mands and the frequency of their disruptive behaviors decreased as a result of the intervention. These current results confirm the effectiveness of using functional analysis technology to generate data that can guide intervention selection.
Service-delivery models that promote collaboration with families and systematically program for generalization may produce socially significant and generalized outcomes. However, valid empirical demonstrations of the impact of these interventions on generalized outcomes are difficult to generate via single case design research. Ongoing measures of caregiver report of behavior change and intervention challenges could be a valuable metric for guiding formative evaluation of behavior change programs. In this paper, we present a fully integrated mixed methods case study using convergent-design elements to demonstrate how incorporating qualitative and quantitative measures focused on behavior that occurred outside of formal therapy sessions informed socially valid and generalized outcomes.
This study revisits Tarlow’s (2017) baseline-corrected Tau and examines key methodological issues affecting its application in single-case experimental designs. Two primary concerns were identified: the use of a two-tailed significance test for detecting monotonic baseline trend and the sensitivity of the statistic to tied values. The two-tailed approach may result in unnecessary baseline correction regardless of trend direction, while excessive tie correction can lead to underestimated effect sizes even in cases of complete nonoverlap. To address these issues, a one-tailed testing procedure was proposed to evaluate the baseline trend in a directionally meaningful manner. Additionally, a revised tie-correction method based on cross-phase tie frequencies was introduced, aligning the denominator with pairwise comparisons between baseline and intervention phases. These refinements are expected to enhance the accuracy of Tau calculations by reducing overcorrection and improving effect size estimates from a nonoverlap perspective.
Single-subject designs are a central focus of inductive research in behavior analysis and applied behavior analysis, specifically. Despite the proliferation of so-called “quality indicators” in the last few decades, we argue that single-subject designs should be evaluated according to baseline logic and the degree to which threats to internal validity are controlled. We provide examples of studies that accomplish this; yet may not be traditional single-subject designs that meet quality indicators or look like the model graphs in research design textbooks.
Effective instruction in higher education relies on structured engagement, frequent opportunities to respond, and meaningful feedback. Prior research suggests that offering students choices of assignments can improve engagement and performance; however, experimental evaluations of this practice in online settings are limited. In this study, an adapted alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the effects of assignment choice on quiz performance among 45 participants across six sections of asynchronous, online Master’s-level courses. Participants completed weekly proof-of-reading assignments, choosing between study questions and reading summaries during “choice weeks”, and being randomly assigned to one of these tasks during “no-choice weeks”. Weekly quiz scores served as the dependent variable. Visual and statistical analyses indicated that providing assignment choice did not improve quiz performance compared to no-choice conditions. However, participants consistently reported a preference for having a choice and reported having choice as helpful for increasing their perceived engagement with course material and preparation for assessments. These findings highlight the potential of assignment choice to enhance student satisfaction in online graduate education, which is important as on-line higher-education enrollment continues to grow.
In two experiments, we analyzed the components of the learn unit- differential reinforcement and error correction- to evaluate their effects on skill acquisition separately and jointly. In Experiment 1, participants were six preschoolers who demonstrated incidental unidirectional naming (Inc-UniN), defined as the ability to acquire listener responses, but not corresponding speaker responses through observation alone. Experiment 2 was a systematic replication with six additional preschoolers demonstrating incidental bidirectional naming (Inc-BiN), defined as the ability to acquire listener and speaker responses through observation alone. An adapted alternating treatments design was used to teach listener responses under three conditions: learn unit instruction, error correction-only, and differential reinforcement-only. Following mastery, we assessed the emergence of untaught speaker responses and maintenance over time. Across experiments, participants reliably acquired responses when instruction included error correction, both with the learn unit and in isolation, whereas reinforcement-only conditions were largely ineffective. However, learners demonstrating Inc-BiN showed modest acquisition under reinforcement-only conditions relative to learners with Inc-UniN. These findings suggest that error correction is a critical component of acquisition, while responsiveness to instructional conditions varies with the strength of naming repertoire. Additionally, patterns of derived speaker responding and maintenance support the conceptualization of naming as a continuum. These findings have important implications for instructional design, highlighting the need to align teaching procedures with learners’ verbal developmental repertoires for effective learning.
Researchers employing single-case designs must consider how features of a particular design will allow for the detection of threats to internal validity germane to their research question or context. Although recent discussions have reconsidered the purported threats to internal validity of nonconcurrent designs, concurrent designs remain ideal when the independent variable is staggered across behaviors for a single participant. Here, we describe an adaptation of concurrent multiple probe and multiple baseline designs across behaviors: the surrogate control design. This design generally adheres to the logic of other time-lagged designs with fewer concurrently operative tiers (i.e., controls). Like time-lagged designs, the independent variable is applied across tiers requiring the addition of a new control condition to replace the prior (i.e., surrogate) control. This adaptation aims to reduce some of the potentially unnecessary procedural features of standard time-lagged designs that may hinder their practicality in applied settings while retaining opportunities for prediction, verification, and replication characteristic of baseline logic.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the I-Connect Self-Monitoring Intervention for improving the on-task behavior of elementary school students with attention difficulties in a general education setting. This study also investigated the effects of thinning the self-monitoring intervals. The average time on task was higher in the intervention condition compared to the baseline and withdrawal conditions. The increased interval lengths resulted in some deterioration of on-task behavior. Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the intervention were positive, and all students chose to participate in the intervention when given the opportunity to do so. Given that on-task behavior is essential for accessing the curriculum, the I-Connect SM intervention may prove beneficial in helping some students maintain on-task behavior.
Limited research has examined the use of video activity schedules to support cooperative game play and social communication during leisure activities for autistic children. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research by evaluating the effects of a combined intervention package consisting of a video activity schedule and antecedent social scripts on cooperative game play behavior and social communication during a board game. Participants were six autistic children aged 5–9 years, grouped into three dyads, who participated in an inclusive summer camp. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across dyads was used to evaluate intervention effects. Visual analysis and nonoverlap of all pairs (NAP) were used to assess outcomes. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the intervention package and correct game play behavior for all participants, with moderate to large effect sizes. However, a functional relation could not be determined for social communication. Findings extend the literature on video activity schedules for leisure skills and highlight the need for more explicit instructional strategies to promote social communication during cooperative play. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.
Behavioral researchers typically measure academic engagement by observing “on-task” behavior, or what students appear to be doing (e.g., they have a pencil in their hand, are oriented toward work materials). Sometimes, increasing time spent on task is an intervention goal, but on-task behavior is often used as a feasible correlate for more nuanced outcomes (e.g., academic productivity, attending to instruction). The scant literature on this topic suggests that correspondence between observed on-task behavior and other metrics of academic engagement may be highly variable and sensitive to environmental variables and individual differences. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine correspondence between observed on-task behavior and product measures of academic productivity (i.e., work completion and accuracy of math problems) under various conditions. Six children aged 8–13, some diagnosed with disabilities, experienced five conditions presented in a multielement format in a laboratory setting: reinforcement for observed on-task behavior, work completion, and work accuracy, plus no reinforcement and noncontingent reinforcement control conditions. We saw strong measure correspondence across conditions for three participants, but the other three had at least one condition in which we saw moderate to high levels of on-task behavior and no work completion. These findings indicate a need for additional research on correspondence between measures of academic engagement.
Using a four combined pre- and post-intervention and delayed multiple probe across participants designs, we tested the effects of establishing books as synchronous reinforcers for sustained observing responses and preference in free play settings for 16 participants on their rates of learning to read first words (aged 2 to 4 years-old, 11 special education preschoolers and 5 general education preschoolers). We set the criterion for having books established as synchronous reinforcers for looking at books 80
A meta-analysis evaluating the effects of school-based interventions for preschool students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was conducted using 12 outcome studies. Separate effect size analyses were performed including between-subjects, with-in-subjects, and single-subject experimental designs. Results indicated that between-subject studies focused on problem behaviors within classroom’s revealed an unweighted effect size of 0.53, whereas an effect size of 0.08 was noted when researchers focused on increasing prosocial behaviors. The within-subject pre-post treatment study results yielded an effect size of 0.58. The unweighted average effect size for single subject studies implementing multiple baseline and reversal designs was 2.06 as calculated using the BC-SMD method. Single-subject studies that utilized an alternating treatment design had effect sizes calculated using either PBM or PEM methods. The average effect size across measurements of disruptive behavior was calculated at 83
As behavioral science moves towards more equitable and individualized interventions, there is a pressing need for flexible and efficient research frameworks. The Multiphase Optimization STrategy (MOST) is a framework for developing more optimized interventions through a sequential development of screening, refining, and confirming phases of knowledge generation. Traditionally reliant on group design studies, MOST can be strengthened by leveraging the strengths of single-case experimental design (SCED) studies, which allow for real-time modifications, contextual sensitivity, and individualized analysis. In this paper, we provide guidance that enables SCED researchers to leverage the benefits of the MOST framework to enhance adaptive intervention development, particularly for, but not limited to, populations that are often underrepresented in group design research. By doing so, researchers can more effectively identify, optimize, and evaluate adaptive intervention components to accelerate the development of evidence-based practice and build equitable behavioral health interventions.
The use of technology within single-case design research has expanded exponentially across disciplines, which necessitates a better understanding of global scientific knowledge and patterns. We aimed to empirically map the evolution of knowledge in single-case design methodology using technology. In the semi-automated screening process, we identified 3,637 publications from the Web of Science, spanning the years 1970 to 2025. The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis was ranked highest in h-index and g-index, and Behavior Analysis in Practice had the highest m-index. The United States was the country with the most authors affiliated. A total of 15 topics emerged through contextualized topic modeling. Primary topics most addressed across decades included health interventions, video modeling, telehealth services, and function-based interventions (topical coverage = 10.83
Middle school teachers often encounter more significant challenges in behavior management compared to their elementary counterparts. This is particularly true for middle school art teachers, who may lack the necessary skills for effective behavior management. To address these challenges, Class-Wide FIT (CW-FIT) offers a positive behavioral intervention designed to teach and reinforce on-task behavior in classroom settings. With CW-FIT, teachers instruct students on specific behavioral expectations and provide feedback and rewards for meeting those standards. We investigated the effectiveness of CW-FIT in a middle school art class, involving one teacher and 36 students, using a single-subject ABAB withdrawal design. Data were collected on student on-task behavior, teacher praise, reprimands, implementation fidelity, and social validity. Results indicated that the teacher’s fidelity to CW-FIT components was adequate, but at times below targeted levels—particularly regarding behavior-specific praise and praise-to-reprimand ratios. Nonetheless, observational data showed increases in student on-task behavior during intervention phases, and the teacher and students generally rated CW-FIT as socially valid. The findings suggest that, although implementation fidelity was not uniform, CW-FIT has the potential to positively influence classroom behavior in middle school art settings, but further research is needed to clarify the relationship between fidelity levels and behavioral outcomes given the variability observed.
Few randomized controlled trials have analyzed evidence-based educational practices delivered through a social media environment. This study used a multi-arm randomized controlled trial to evaluate the critical components of an educational intervention package: study self-management skills training delivered through video modeling, cooperative learning, and semi-immediate instructor feedback. We evaluated social media engagement and academic performance among 141 students in a postgraduate applied psychology program. Students were randomly assigned to five groups: control (n = 27); self-management (n = 27); cooperative learning (n = 33); self-management and cooperative learning (n = 27); and self-management, cooperative learning, and semi-immediate instructor feedback (n = 27). Results indicated that participants receiving the complete intervention showed numerically higher effect sizes, whereas all groups, except for the self-management group showed significantly higher academic performance than the control group. We discuss the conceptual, methodological, and practical implications of the study.
Social validity is fundamental to upholding the applied and effective domains of ABA, but it remains underreported in the literature. This study aimed to explore the social validity of teacher-implemented Precision Teaching (PT) from a student’s perspective. A total of 81 students from second and third-grade classrooms in educationally disadvantaged schools in the Republic of Ireland participated in this study. Students shared their perspectives of participating in a PT and Frequency Building intervention with the Morningside Math Facts Curriculum. Focus groups were conducted to promote open honest dialogue. The data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three key themes were generated from the data specifically (a) Students as Active Drives in Their Learning, (b) Learning Can Be Hard. Nurturing Environments Are Key, (c) Punished by Rewards? Fostering Engagement through Positive Reinforcement. Generally, students’ accounts portrayed PT as a socially valid approach to learning across all three levels of social validity: the social significance of their goals, the social appropriateness of procedures, the social importance of effects. Implications of the findings for research and practice are discussed alongside strengths, limitations and recommendations for future research.
The current study examined the effect of targeted professional development (PD) using Behavioral Skills Training (BST) on teacher fidelity in implementing a visual schedule for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. A single-case non-concurrent multiple-baseline design across participants was used to evaluate changes in implementation fidelity following a structured PD intervention. Participants included three general education teachers from the same public middle school, each supporting a student with an existing BIP. Results demonstrated functional relationships between the intervention and improvements in BIP implementation fidelity across participants. Participants showed increased accuracy in applying behavior strategies during the intervention phase that was also linked to improved student outcomes. The participants found the training beneficial and feasible for the general education setting. These findings further support the use of PD with performance feedback to enhance BIP implementation in general education classrooms. Implications include the potential for improved student behavioral outcomes and the need for systemic supports to sustain high-fidelity practices.
