Semantic-Lexicographic Aspects of Deverbal -ung-Nominalizations in German: Theoretical Foundations and Descriptive Possibilities. Contemporary digital dictionaries exhibit significant shortcomings in the systematic representation of morpho-lexical information. This study uses German deverbal -ung-nominalisations to examine how corpus-based argument structure analyses can improve their lexicographic documentation. Based on a semantically annotated corpus, 200 -ung-nominalisations were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results lead to two central findings: (a) Regular polysemy: The morphological formation mechanisms explain the systematic polysemy between process (nomen actionis) and result (nomen acti) readings, a relationship whose connection to the -ung affix is not presented in existing monolingual dictionaries; (b) Stable argument structure: The semantic argument structure (of the nomen actionis) is characterised by a stable "minimal program" (the argument for the patient/theme and the argument for the cause of change). The study consequently proposes an optimised model that integrates these explicit argument structure patterns and their semantic functions. This systematic approach is crucial for advanced learners of German (DaF), as it enables the productive formation of nominalisations. The work thus demonstrates that a systematic morpho-lexical presentation addresses the growing need for structured digital lexicography and supports foreign language acquisition. Keywords: deverbal nouns, -ung-nominalisations, argument structure, digital lexicography, users' needs, corpus-based methods, regular polysemy
Review of Annette Klosa-Kückelhaus and Martina Nied Curcio (Eds.). Dictionary Use and Dictionary Teaching. New Challenges in a Multilingual, Digital and Global World.
Contemporary digital dictionaries exhibit significant shortcomings in the systematic representation of morpho-lexical information. This study uses German deverbal-ung-nominalisations to examine how corpus-based argument structure analyses can improve their lexicographic documentation. Based on a semantically annotated corpus, 200-ung-nominalisations were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results lead to two central findings: (a) Regular polysemy: The morphological formation mechanisms explain the systematic polysemy between process (nomen actionis) and result ( nomen acti) readings, a relationship whose connection to the-ung affix is not presented in existing monolingual dictionaries; (b) Stable argument structure: The semantic argument structure (of the nomen actionis) is characterised by a stable "minimal program" (the argument for the patient/theme and the argument for the cause of change). The study consequently proposes an optimised model that integrates these explicit argument structure patterns and their semantic func-tions. This systematic approach is crucial for advanced learners of German (DaF), as it enables the productive formation of nominalisations. The work thus demonstrates that a systematic morpho-lexical presentation addresses the growing need for structured digital lexicography and supports foreign language acquisition.
Word-class labeling, which significantly affects the quality and practical value of dictionaries, has remained a persistent challenge in Chinese-foreign language lexicography. Grounded in quantum thinking and transdisciplinary methodology, this study applies the Two-Level Lexical Categorization Theory to systematically examine the word-class labeling in the New Chinese-Vietnamese Dictionary. Drawing on a self-built database and corpus-based usage survey, the study evaluates the current labeling practices, explores the underlying reasons for the problems, and proposes strategies for improvement. The study reveals that while the typical class membership of the entries is accurately labeled, there are still notable defects: (1) mistakenly recognizing non-word morphemes as lexical entries; (2) artificially minimizing the number of heterosemous entries and failing to capture the true usage of Modern Chinese entries contained in the dictionary. These problems may partially stem from certain biased conceptions of Modern Chinese word classes, and the misapplication of the "Principle of Parsimony/Simplicity" under the constraints of scientism/Newtonian thinking. To address these issues, this paper argues that the New Chinese-Vietnamese Dictionary and other Chinese-foreign language dictionaries should abandon the "Principle of Parsimony/Simplicity" in word-class labeling, adopt corpus-based evidence to reflect actual Modern Chinese usage, and thereby enhance dictionary reliability and usability for learners and translators.
This article examines the reception of the African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project and the African Languages Research Institute's (ALRI) dictionaries by the target users. It assesses the target users' ownership, awareness, knowledge, and use of the dictionaries. Thus, the study seeks to gauge the dictionary culture of the primary target users of the dictionaries under study. The findings of the study demonstrate that since the publication of the dictionaries, the dictionary culture of the target users has not changed much. Most of the target users do not own the dictionaries and do not use them. The dictionaries are also not prescribed as key reference materials or tools in the basic education sector or as tools of the trade for language mediators in courts, parliament, or media. There is also no curriculum for the teaching of dictionary skills and imparting dictionary culture in the Zimbabwean basic education system. The findings of this study further highlight the prevailing misconception that in African speech communities, dictionary assistance is not required in one's mother tongue.
This paper addresses a key component of every descriptive dictionary - lexicographic qualifiers, with a particular focus on one of their types, namely usage qualifiers. The analysis draws on examples from the first volume of the Dictionary of the Montenegrin National and Literary Language. It considers both normative and functional-stylistic qualifiers, which are essential elements of lexicographic description. Their significance is highlighted in both the standardization of the lexicon and its functional-stylistic stratification. By providing explanations and illustrative examples, this paper emphasizes the importance of usage qualifiers for an accurate understanding of the semantic content of lexemes in a broader context, as well as their communicative value and pragmatic relevance. Moreover, the paper points out the inherent susceptibility of usage qualifiers to change (which reflects the dynamic nature of the lexicon and language changes in general), thereby highlighting the need to establish general principles and criteria for their more consistent use in descriptive dictionaries. Some characteristic examples of the use of qualifiers have also been examined comparatively, in relation to their treatment in other dictionaries from the formerly shared Serbo-Croatian linguistic area. Attention is likewise drawn to the challenges lexicographers face in marking and classifying lexical items, as well as to possible approaches to overcoming these issues.
The Use of Colour in Online Dictionaries, with Consideration of Three Afrikaans Dictionaries. When considering the use of colour in some online Afrikaans dictionaries, it seems that colour is sometimes used ineffectively or haphazardly. In other cases, colours seem to be chosen mainly to align with the dictionary publisher's brand identity, rather than for practical purposes. This may result from abstract or vague metalexicographical suggestions that offer unsatisfactory guidance to practical lexicographers but could also be the result of South African, and Afrikaans, lexicography developing slower compared to the Western world. This article discusses the use of colour is in online dictionaries, considering a few suggestions from metalexicographical research. These suggestions are then supplemented with some guidelines derived from the field of information technology. The application of the theoretical possibilities, or lack thereof, is discussed with regard to the online version of the Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaans Taal, Aanlyn Woordeboek van die Afrikaans Taal and the Woordeboek van Afrikaans Vandag. These dictionaries show room for improvement in some aspects related to colour usage, with many exciting and more advanced possibilities still a future prospect for Afrikaans lexicography. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the use of colour is promising and may play a greater role in accessibility in the future. Keywords: colour usage, online dictionaries, data accessibility, dictionary structures, article structure
A More Comprehensive Presentation of Semantic Data in Online Dictionaries. Meaning is the type of data most frequently needed by dictionary users. Due to space restrictions printed dictionaries can only offer a limited reflection of those aspects of meaning relevant to dictionary users. In determining features of meaning to be used in explanations of meaning, lexicographers are often guided by insights from older approaches in linguistics. Consequently, a strict division is often still maintained between linguistic and encyclopaedic data. Following an overview of some aspects of dictionary typology, dictionary structures and semantic data in printed dictionaries, this paper offers suggestions for the use of new types of dictionary structures to ensure a more comprehensive presentation of semantic data in online monolingual dictionaries. In the different subcomments on semantics in dictionary articles, provision is made for a horizontal ordering of different compartments to accommodate different types of data. More space is allocated to semantic data and also to data that fall beyond the scope of traditional dictionary entries. A stronger focus is placed on semantic relations and ways in which this type of semantic guidance could be accommodated in the comment on semantics. New types of integrated microstructures are suggested to make data accessible for target users, and suggestions are also made for the retrieval of information from dictionary-external sources. Semantic data should be presented as good and as comprehensive as possible in monolingual dictionaries. Keywords: comment on semantics, compartments, delayed integrated microstructure, integrated microstructure, levels, multi-phased integrated microstructure, parallel integrated microstructure, paraphrase of meaning, search tunnel, search universe, semantic data, shaft structure, subcomment on semantics
Brand names in the 9th edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française. The article contains an analysis of the words labelled as brand names in the 9th edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française. The sample contains 88 items, out of which most are based on proper names, usually family and place names, and common nouns referring to various features and functions of products. These words are formed using a range of morphosyntactic processes, such as composition, scholarly derivation and abbreviation. The sample includes frequent borrowings from various European languages and particularly from English. From the semantic point of view, these words mainly designate (a) devices, equipment, machines, tools, means of transport, food products, and games, and (b) materials, substances, pharmaceutical products, synthetic fibres, and plastics. A brief analysis comparing the presence of words originating from brand names in dictionaries Larousse and Le Robert reveals a certain instability of their lexicographic treatment. Keywords: lexicalization, deonomastics, proper name, brand name, French language, Dictionnaire de l'Académie française, Larousse, Le Robert
A detailed analysis is offered of how ChatGPT-3.5 has treated the world's languages for lexicographic purposes, starting with hyper-visible English, moving to semi-visible Portuguese, and ending with low-visible Bantu languages. Case studies for the latter group are region-visible Swahili, nation-visible Xhosa and local-visible Lusoga. This impact-based scale is reflected in the uptake of GenAI technology for lexicography. The results of using out-of-the-box ChatGPT-3.5 are fantastic for English, fake for Portuguese, and simply fail for the Bantu languages. But there is a way out, and the seeds for that are sown in this article.
About a year and a half ago, lexicographers realised that the enthusiasm they had when using ChatGPT-3.5 for English lexicography, could not be carried over to other languages, not even big ones like Portuguese. A year ago, the lexicographic community was made aware that ChatGPT-3.5 could not be used at all for small languages, and especially not for oral ones like Lusoga. In mid-2025, we notice that the models have improved drastically. Both Gemini-2.5 and especially GPT-4o perform miracles on languages like Portuguese, and for undocumented languages like Lusoga, customising GPT-4o by feeding it corpora as well as entire dictionaries is a major step forward, down to tackling neologisms. We are not yet there in full but moving forward.
This study presents a systematic literature review of empirical research on dictionary use published in the journal Lexikos over its 35-volume history (1991-2025). The paper employs the PRISMA methodology. Based on 44 relevant studies identified, the review analyses trends in research focus, methodology, educational context, geographic distribution, and investigated languages. Findings reveal a growing interest in dictionary use, particularly since 2012, with a strong emphasis on English-language contexts and higher education. Methodologically, mixed-methods and cross-sectional designs dominate, while longitudinal research remains notably absent. Asia and Europe are the most represented regions, although studies span diverse global contexts. The review highlights underexplored areas such as primary education, non-English dictionary use, and longitudinal perspectives. The review also calls for future research that addresses these gaps, explores dictionary use at different language proficiency levels, and examines the pedagogical integration of digital dictionary tools. The findings provide valuable insights for researchers aiming to investigate dictionary use and dictionary-based learning.
This paper considers challenges arising within the development of the Ukrainian wordnet, specifically focusing on the integration and alignment of vocabularies originating from diverse sources, such as conventional dictionaries, the Open English Wordnet, and other wordnets. Various cases of synonymy and hyper-hyponymy presented in the Open English Wordnet and in conventional terminological and phonetic dictionaries were analyzed, as well as the definitions of terms in these sources were compared. It was found that traditional dictionaries do not contain all the necessary hyper- and hyponymic relations, and definitions in wordnets are often inaccurate or incomplete. It is shown that creating wordnets based on the "merge" and combined approaches, exemplified by Ukrajinet, necessitates specific lexicographic post-processing. This procedure involves several crucial steps, including incorporating additional lexical units for lacking concepts, refining definitions, and introducing novel concepts and semantic structures, particularly those associated with hyper- and hyponymy, aligned with revised definitions.
This paper investigates spelling variation in A Dictionary of Setswana Personal Names (Otlogetswe and Ramaeba 2024), addressing a gap in existing research which has previously focused on general-purpose monolingual Setswana dictionaries (Otlogetswe 2015) but not specialized dictionaries such as the one on personal names. The study draws on orthographic guidelines outlined in the Standard Orthography of 1981 (Ministry of Education 1981) and Mokwalo o o Lolameng wa Setswana (Chebanne et al. 2008), while also tracing the historical development of Setswana orthography to early works by Lichtenstein (1928-1930; 1973) and Livingstone (1875). Using textual analysis, the paper critically examines dictionary headwords to identify and categorize spelling variants. The findings reveal numerous inconsistencies in the spelling of Setswana personal names, influenced by factors such as the coexistence of older and newer orthographic standards, dialectal variation across Setswana-speaking regions, and underlying morphological and phonological processes.
The focus of this paper is on GenAI, chatbots and some implications for lexicography and dictionary use. The use of GenAI as an information tool to provide information to end-users (readers) who have a specific information need when reading a text is discussed. GenAI could previously provide content similar to that of a dictionary but could not provide contextualised answers. This has changed and most chatbots now have two modes, a "search" mode and a "thinking/ reasoning mode", i.e., it is able to argue logically about its different proposed meanings in context and tends to offer a solution. This feature is discussed at the hand of examples, and it seems as if the chatbots can now provide correct contextual meaning and logically motivate the choice of meaning in context, based on their critical analysis and thinking skills although it still "hallucinates" if it has no answer. Hereafter, the role of dictionaries and lexicographers in an AI-enhanced world is discussed. The traditional assignment of dictionaries to document the status and history of a language remains a very important function and needs to be encouraged, especially in environments with limited language resources. However, exploring new commercial ventures, incorporating latest technologies, would be essential to the future of the discipline and industry.
The main topic of this article is the thematic classification of vocabulary in two Polish dictionaries that were compiled at the beginning of the 21st century. The first is the Wielki s & lstrok;ownik j & eogon;zyka polskiego PAN (WSJP PAN) [The Polish Academy of Sciences Great Dictionary of Polish], which describes contemporary vocabulary and can function as a thematic dictionary. The second is the S & lstrok;ownik poj & eogon;ciowy j & eogon;zyka staropolskiego (SPJS) [Conceptual Dictionary of Old Polish], which collects vocabulary up to the end of the 15th century and arranges it in conceptual fields. The primarily electronic format of these dictionaries has created completely new possibilities for classification according to meaning, which is worth briefly describing in the context of the thematic lexicography used in Polish paper dictionaries to date. Therefore, the most important Polish thematic dictionaries over the centuries are listed first (Section 2), followed by a more detailed description of the SPJS and WSJP PAN (Section 3). In Section 4, the following is described based on these two Polish electronic dictionaries: the ease of switching between onomasiological and semasiological orders, the significantly greater possibilities for classifying lexical units, and the ability to search fields using advanced search functions. These considerations are important given the growing number of electronic dictionaries increasingly adopting onomasiological orders.
The following paper takes a critical and comparative look at a total of five dictionaries of pronunciation, two German and three English, which represent the current state of development in German and English phono-lexicography. The aim of this comparison is not only to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the individual works in the context of current lexicographical practice and, possibly, to provide ideas for future developments in presenting and conveying pronunciation information, but also to stimulate an interlingual discourse that could contribute to reflection on universal and language-specific challenges in phonetic standardisation and codification. As a starting point, a general description of the dictionaries under investigation is provided, covering aspects such as their origins, target groups, as well as the construction and extent of the respective word lists and front matters. The actual analysis focuses on four main areas: the concept of what is to be considered and codified as standard pronunciation, the treatment of phono-stylistic and regional pronunciation variants, the graphic design of the dictionaries compared, and finally their multimedia extensions. The last section summarises the similarities and, above all, the differences between the dictionaries analysed in the above areas, and concludes with a brief subjective outlook on the future prospects of pronunciation dictionaries.
Many minority language communities in sub-Saharan Africa are required to navigate national education systems dominated by languages in which they are not largely proficient, and which they lack resources and tools to learn. When taken together with a low political will for resourcing minority languages, these become formidable barriers for learning and development (Matiki 2006: 244, 246; Prinsloo 2017: 20). Many minority languages are also not understood or spoken outside of these communities, and there are few resources to assist people to gain capacity in them, which results in large communication gaps. This paper examines how a team of non-professional Yawo lexicographers in Malawi worked to overcome these barriers in order to produce two limited-word bilingual learner's dictionaries (English-Ciyawo; Ciyawo-English) in book and smartphone application forms. More specifically, it explains how the team was trained, the development of a limited organic corpus from oral interviews as a method for supplementing an unbalanced corpus, and the importance of collaboration. The paper also articulates the linguistic and pedagogical theories that are foundational to the project, including that second-language learners develop second-language competence more efficiently through engaging with a curated headword list of high-frequency and high-relevance words (Nation 2022: 15-17; Bayetto 2018: 12).
