Introduction: Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have attracted considerable attention as biocompatible drug delivery vehicles. Wolffia globosa (Kai-pum), a native Thai aquatic plant, represents a novel and underexplored source of ELNs. This study describes the isolation, characterization, and functional evaluation of W. globosa-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (WGENs) that are surface-modified with the integrin-targeting Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptide and loaded with doxorubicin (Dox) for targeted breast cancer therapy. Methods: WGENs were isolated by differential ultracentrifugation and characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). RGD functionalization was achieved via DSPE-PEG-RGD membrane insertion, followed by doxorubicin loading through electroporation. Cellular uptake was assessed by fluorescence microscopy and live-cell imaging in 4T1 and CL-S1 cell lines. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by LDH assay. Results: NTA revealed WGEN mode sizes of 94.1 and 106.9 nm. TEM confirmed cup-shaped vesicular morphology. RGD-Exo-Dox treatment resulted in 4-fold greater intracellular doxorubicin accumulation in 4T1 cells than in CL-S1 cells (4.3% vs. 1.1% red fluorescence at 16 h). No statistically significant difference in cytotoxicity between RGD-Exo-Dox and free doxorubicin was detected in 4T1 cells (all p > 0.05); the observed numerical differences did not constitute positive evidence of differential cytotoxicity. Discussion: Preferential intracellular doxorubicin accumulation was observed in αvβ3-overexpressing 4T1 cells compared with CL-S1 cells, which is consistent with RGD-mediated integrin targeting. This interpretation is subject to important limitations, including the absence of a scrambled-peptide control nanoparticle and unconfirmed surface RGD density; the differential uptake may therefore reflect nonspecific factors. Comparative formulation data are presented as preliminary, descriptive data pending formal statistical validation. Conclusion: RGD-functionalized WGENs constitute a promising plant-derived nanocarrier platform for proof-of-concept doxorubicin delivery, with enhanced uptake in αvβ3-overexpressing 4T1 cells. These preliminary findings warrant further investigation with appropriate mechanistic controls and in vivo validation.
Abstract: Topical nanoemulgels represent a novel and promising hybrid drug delivery system that integrates the advantages of both nanoemulsions and gels to enhance skin drug delivery. Their unique physicochemical properties, such as high solubilizing capacity for lipophilic drugs, small droplet size, and rheological suitability, make them highly effective for localized dermatological applications. Recent advances in formulation strategies have enabled the incorporation of various synthetic and natural bioactive into nanoemulgel systems, improving their stability, penetration depth, and therapeutic efficacy. Polymers, both natural (e.g., chitosan, alginate, xanthan gum) and synthetic (e.g., Carbopol, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, polyvinyl alcohol), play a critical role as gelling agents, viscosity enhancers, and stabilizers, influencing the release profile, bioadhesion, and mechanical properties of nanoemulgels. This review comprehensively outlines the current progress in the development, characterization, and biomedical application of nanoemulgels for the treatment of skin disorders, including acne, psoriasis, fungal infections, and dermatitis. Emphasis is placed on formulation techniques, excipient roles, permeation enhancement mechanisms, and safety profiles. Furthermore, challenges in scalability and regulatory approval, as well as future directions toward clinical translation, are critically discussed.
Recent advances in nanotechnology have significantly expanded the application of nanomaterials in analytical chemistry, particularly in electrochemical sensing. This review systematically covers developments reported over the past decade (approximately 2015-2025) in nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors for diverse analytical targets. Owing to their high surface area, tunable electrical conductivity, and unique physicochemical properties, nanomaterials play a critical role in enhancing sensor sensitivity, selectivity, and signal transduction efficiency. This article provides a comprehensive and critical evaluation of major classes of nanomaterials, including carbon nanomaterials, metallic nanostructures, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), and polymer nanocomposites. Key aspects, including synthesis strategies, surface functionalisation, sensing mechanisms, and analytical performance metrics, are systematically compared. Furthermore, current challenges related to reproducibility, long-term stability, fouling resistance, and large-scale fabrication are critically discussed, along with limitations in real-sample analysis. Finally, emerging trends and future perspectives are outlined to guide the development of robust and practical electrochemical sensing platforms.
Various cell types produce small extracellular vesicles called exosomes, which are becoming more and more popular as natural delivery systems for medicinal compounds in cancer treatment and regenerative medicine. They are ideal drug delivery vehicles because they are stable, have minimal immunogenicity, and can transport a variety of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and small drugs, across biological barriers. Recent developments in bioengineering have produced "designer exosomes" with enhanced cargo-loading efficiency, superior targeting, and surface features that can be altered. To overcome these issues like poor biodistribution and low drug capacity, exosomes can also be mixed with other nanocarriers, such as liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles. Clinical trials investigating applications in cardiovascular repair, neurological disorders, and targeted oncology are now underway. Exosome-based therapeutics exhibit promise in tissue regeneration and cancer therapy. Large-scale manufacturing, standardization of isolation techniques, regulatory approval, and long-term safety are still obstacles, nevertheless. Future studies will concentrate on creating customized treatments that meet precision medicine objectives, as well as building multifunctional and hybrid exosomes. Exosomes have the potential to become next-generation delivery systems that revolutionize cancer therapy and regenerative medicine treatment approaches with further development.
