Individuals with disabilities are estimated to be three to four times more likely to experience victimization than their peers, highlighting the importance of ensuring that forensic interviewing practices are accessible to minimally speaking and nonspeaking individuals. In this context, nonverbal evidence collection refers to the use of nonverbal forms of communication (e.g., gestures, drawings, augmentative and alternative communication [ACC] systems, behavioural demonstrations or visual responses) to elicit information during investigative interviews. However, research on investigative interviewing of minimally speaking and nonspeaking individuals is extremely limited. This scoping review examined the extent to which nonverbal evidence collection methods are discussed within the literature and the techniques currently used during investigative interviews. Systematic searches, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, were conducted using eight databases for peer-reviewed studies that examined methods used to support nonverbal communication and evidence during investigative interviews. In total, 27 studies were included in the review. Findings revealed a critical gap: while nonverbal evidence collection methods are commonly used to support verbal communication, their effectiveness for minimally speaking or nonspeaking individuals remains underexplored. Future research should directly examine the utility of nonverbal evidence collection methods in populations with limited verbal capacity and work towards developing standardized, validated interviewing approaches that incorporate nonverbal and alternative forms of communication.
Recent high-profile cases of police misconduct in the UK have raised questions about the willingness or ability of police officers to contest misconduct amongst their own members. Willingness to whistleblow against fellow colleagues has received limited attention in the literature. Previous research has revealed discrepancies in defining and measuring whistleblowing with a reliance on quantitative approaches limiting the understanding of officers lived experiences. Here, we investigate officer knowledge, perceptions, and real-life encounters with police whistleblowing, employing semi-structured interviews with 15 members of a UK policing force. We focus on officers’ own definitions of whistleblowing, the reality of their experiences along with reflections and potential improvements on the process. Applying a reflexive thematic analysis, six main themes were generated – (1) the blind spots of whistleblowing, (2) the primacy and influence of interpersonal relationships, (3) cynicism and scepticism about the whistleblowing system, tensions in the process including (4) the problem of gossip and (5) the paradox of anonymity, and (6) suggestions for change. We reveal widespread confusion among officers regarding whistleblowing, compounded by a reliance on gossip and a notable distrust of investigative systems. Officers describe both positive and negative consequences of anonymity in the reporting system and reveal a cynicism about the possibility that police forces can undergo positive organisational change. They also make recommendations for improving organisational communication and the investigative process. We conclude with some practical recommendations for improving whistleblowing in the policing context.
We examined the role of a person’s own height and weight and their beliefs about the height and weight of the typical person in their judgments of the height and weight of a perpetrator. Participants estimated the height and weight for a perpetrator, a plausible range for the values, the values for the typical person, and supplied their own measurements. In studies 1–4, judgments of height and weight for a perpetrator were anchored on estimates for the typical person. In Studies 1–3, there was an own-anchor effect for weight mediated by the typical other: Participants used themselves as an anchor when estimating the weight of a typical other, and the weight of a typical other as an anchor in their estimates for the target. Participants gave a much larger range of plausible weight measurements than they did for height, indicating greater uncertainty in weight judgments. Greater uncertainty potentially caused them to use themselves as a basis for estimating the weight of the typical person. Knowing what witnesses believe to be typical can help in establishing biases in their estimates.
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) changed the cadet admission requirements in February 2022. The current study was designed to assess whether changes to admissions were associated with differences in putative risk and resilience factors (i.e., relatively modifiable individual difference variables) for mental health challenges among cadets. RCMP cadets recruited before (STC; n = 772; 72.2
Frontline professionals involved in child abuse investigations face complex and demanding work environments. Repeated exposure to traumatic material places them at elevated risk of secondary traumatic stress (STS) and burnout. This cross-sectional study examined the prevalence of STS, burnout, compassion satisfaction, and associated psychosocial work factors, among 168 Norwegian police investigators and 31 health and social care professionals involved in child abuse investigations. The officers were recruited from specialized units investigating child sexual abuse and violence, whereas the health and social care workers were recruited from Children’s Advocacy Centers. A substantial proportion of the participants reported moderate levels of STS (35
Given the current psychedelic renaissance, it is important to understand the extent and nature of violence associated with psychedelics. While homicides committed in the context of drug-induced psychosis are well-documented among methamphetamine users and temporary psychosis is an established adverse effect of psychedelics, there has been little research on psychedelic-related homicides for decades. Moreover, while research suggests that violence associated with drug-induced psychosis can be motivated by the content of delusions, more research is needed to understand the role of delusions in such offenses. Using a sample of homicides by psychedelic-intoxicated offenders between 1962 and mid-2025 (n = 626), this study tested several hypotheses about the role of delusions in these homicides. Delusions, which were present in 28
Previous research has shown that individuals with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) are more likely to be overrepresented in the criminal justice system (CJS) compared to those without FASD. Criminal justice encounters can involve a range of harmful sexual behaviours (HSB), as well as sexual offences, and FASD-impacted individuals may be more vulnerable to such encounters. To date, there has been no review of the evidence regarding FASD, HSB, and/or sexual offending. A systematic review was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines to identify primary studies, case studies, or case law reviews that have explored FASD in relation to HSB and/or sexual offending. A total of 21 articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this review. Thirteen of these papers were primary studies, and the remaining eight were case law reviews, with three also providing case studies. Despite evidence linking FASD to increased HSB and sexual offending, the results of this review highlight significant research gaps in how features of FASD may provide a context of vulnerability for engaging in such behaviours.
Public and media scrutiny has raised concerns around police officers’ abilities to prevent and deter sex offending, eroding public trust and compromising legitimacy beyond repair. Despite this, the relationship between self-legitimacy and the specialism for sex offences is under-explored. The study addressed this gap by drawing on constructivist interviews with 26 police officers. Participants emphasised the importance of investing in nationally recognised specialist practices to restore public trust and procedural fairness. For sex offences, specialism promoted legitimacy: internally by reinforcing officers’ confidence and role clarity; externally by improving credibility and victim engagement. Misalignments between public expectations and officers’ capacity were highlighted. Prioritising effective specialism could help constabularies rebuild public confidence for the investigation of sex offences and crime more broadly.
Police Patrol Officers (PPOs) increasingly encounter individuals experiencing severe mental ill health who may pose a risk to themselves or others. In such situations, PPOs may act either independently or in collaboration with healthcare professionals, navigating a complex interplay between legal duties, safety considerations, and ethical responsibilities. This qualitative study aiming to explore PPOs’ ethical competence in such situations employed focus group interviews (n = 5) with PPOs (n = 32) and applied a deductive qualitative content analysis based on Lechasseur et al.’s framework of ethical competence, comprising ethical sensitivity, ethical knowledge, ethical reflection, ethical decision-making, ethical action, and ethical behaviour. The findings suggest that PPOs demonstrate several dimensions of ethical competence yet describe challenges related to emotional detachment, managing uncertainty, and balancing caregiving and law-enforcement responsibilities. Ethical competence was mainly articulated in relation to professional duty, harm reduction, and efforts to balance safety, autonomy, and support. The findings indicate a need for continued ethics education, structured opportunities for reflection, and strengthened interprofessional collaboration to support ethically grounded practice in encounters involving individuals experiencing severe mental ill health.
Professionals assisting trauma victims, including police officers, are exposed to both negative effects, such as Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS), and positive outcomes, like Secondary Posttraumatic Growth (SPTG). This study aimed to explore the relationships between empathy, work engagement, STS, and SPTG among police officers, and to identify predictors of negative and positive effects of secondary trauma exposure. Additionally, mediation analyses examined whether empathy and work engagement play the role of mediators.The sample consisted of 220 Polish police officers (aged 22–59, M = 39.08; SD = 7.00; 83.2
Past research has demonstrated a relationship between reactive criminal thinking and hostile attribution bias. However, no research so far has investigated whether general criminal thinking correlates with hostile attribution bias and hostile interpretation bias. This is of particular importance when suspects navigating the criminal justice system interact with various agents, including police officers, lawyers, and judges. Misinterpreting facial expressions as hostile or attributing malicious intent to these figures may hinder suspects’ ability to engage with support designed to protect their rights. The criminal thinking perspective explains how maladaptive cognitive processes and biased belief systems lead to criminal conduct. Given its emphasis on irrational thought patterns and impulsivity that is linked to aggression and that both criminal thinking and hostility biases are linked to aggression, this study hypothesised that a relationship may exist between criminal thinking, hostile attribution bias, and hostile interpretation bias. A cross-sectional quantitative design - sampling from a university student population (N = 476) – using measures of criminal thinking process (Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Style) and content (Criminal Sentiments Scale Modified), Hostile Attribution Bias (Social Emotional Information Processing Assessment for Adults adapted), and Hostile Interpretation Bias (Emotion Perception Task adapted) was employed to investigate this. Multiple regression analyses revealed that elevated criminal thinking is linked to hostile attribution bias and hostile interpretation bias. Implications for suspect decision making in the criminal justice journey are discussed in light of these findings.
Confirmation bias has been identified as a recurrent cause of wrongful convictions. To mitigate the risk of this bias, police investigators should devote effort to exploring and attempting to falsify alternative hypotheses about a crime. In the Netherlands, investigators in complex serious crime investigations are instructed to apply devil’s advocacy (DA) to increase discussion and testing of alternative investigative theories. This study provides a first quantitative examination of whether DA is associated with more falsification-focused reasoning about evidence. Police investigators who regularly work with DA (n = 63), investigators who do not (n = 76), and laypersons (n = 88) read a fictional investigation report and judged the likelihood that the prime suspect was guilty both before and after asking follow-up questions and receiving additional information. None of the groups clearly demonstrated confirmation bias. Contrary to prediction, both investigator groups provided lower guilt-likelihood estimates than laypersons throughout, but DA-experienced and non-DA-experienced investigators did not differ significantly from one another on any outcome. DA experience was not associated with greater falsification-focused questioning, stronger weighting of exonerating evidence, or larger reductions in guilt-likelihood estimates. Exploratory analyses suggested that DA-experienced investigators asked fewer confirmatory questions than both other groups. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
This study investigates secondary traumatic stress and collective trauma transmission patterns affecting police officers and their families following mass casualty terrorist events. Sixteen wives of Israeli police officers aged 30–51, married to officers serving in specialized counter-terrorism units including Yasam (Special Patrol Unit), Yamam (Counter-Terrorism Unit), Magav (Border Police), and Bomb Disposal Units, participated in this qualitative study. Using interpretive-constructive methodology, we conducted 24 h of semi-structured interviews to explore how the October 7, 2023, terrorist attacks created cascading PTSD symptomatology and moral injury throughout police family systems. Analysis reveals three key findings: First, collective traumatic exposure fundamentally disrupts family homeostasis through secondary traumatic stress transmission, hypervigilance patterns, and intergenerational trauma effects. Second, Israeli police families experienced dual traumatization through simultaneous occupational exposure and community victimization, creating complex PTSD presentations. Third, despite severe traumatic exposure, families demonstrated post-traumatic growth trajectories facilitated by peer support networks. Findings suggest that mass casualty terror events require comprehensive family-centered trauma interventions addressing both primary and secondary PTSD symptomatology, with culturally informed therapeutic protocols targeting collective trauma, moral injury, and ongoing security-related hypervigilance.
This study examines the effect of police uniform on officers’ use of force and types of force during stop-question-frisks in New York City. Data were obtained from the New York Police Department (NYPD) website covering the period from 2017 to 2023 (N = 76,354) and analyzed using multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression tests. The findings indicate that wearing police uniform significantly increased the likelihood of any use of force. Additionally, except for handcuff usage, police uniform was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of employing less-lethal weapons, followed by firearms, restraint, and other force types. The results suggest that police uniform influences officers’ use of force and types of force.
In most areas of the United States, law enforcement officers (LEOs) serve as first responders for 911-calls related to behavioral health crises. We aimed to explore LEOs perceptions of behavioral health crisis calls and perceived preparedness for crisis response. In addition, we aimed to understand LEO knowledge and perceptions of the national behavioral health crisis hotline, 988. Given the relative novelty of 988, we know very little about LEO perceptions of this service. Twenty-two active LEOs from across (STATE) participated in one of five focus groups. Thematic Analyses themes include: unpredictability, systemic issues, time-consuming and cyclical, accountability, and alternative crisis response models including 988. Specifically, qualitative findings indicate officers perceived behavioral health crises as highly unpredictable and highlighted systemic deficiencies. LEOs expressed skepticism about 988’s efficacy and sustainability voicing concerns about funding. This study highlights LEOs’ perceptions of inadequate community mental health resources and treatment accessibility, signaling potential support within the LEO community for increasing access to community-based behavioral health crisis resources. In addition, these data suggest potential LEO reservations regarding 988 implementation and sustainability.
Workplace well-being is vital for the organizational effectiveness of law enforcement officers, including police, correctional staff, customs officials, and firefighters, who face stressors like limited resources and trauma, particularly in developing contexts like Kosovo, where empirical data are limited. This study, guided by the Job Demands-Resources Model, examined well-being (measured as institutional inspiration to perform) among 225 Kosovo officers using a cross-sectional survey and 51-item Likert-scale questionnaire, analyzed with Spearman’s correlation and multiple linear regression in SPSS (version 27). Results showed 71.1
The concept of training scars—unintended and potentially harmful behaviors acquired through training—has received limited scholarly attention despite its widespread use in police and military training communities. Although broadly referenced by practitioners, the term remains colloquial, lacks a formal definition and theoretical grounding, and offers no systematic guidance for identification or mitigation. This conceptual synthesis, the first in-depth examination of training scars in the context of police operational-skills training, reports the findings of a rapid integrative review of 76 published and grey literature records. The review identified 32 unique definitions, 104 attributes organized into 17 content domains, 121 examples spanning 14 training topics, 106 mitigations across 11 categories, 29 related concepts and theories, and 18 related terms. Definitions most commonly emphasized bad habits and unintended consequences but were generally too brief and imprecise to guide identification or mitigation. The 17 attribute domains cluster into four functional groups—antecedents, detection, consequences, and management—providing a conceptual scaffold for future empirical work. Mitigations converge on a core principle: training should minimize the discrepancy between practice conditions and operational demands, and where discrepancies cannot be eliminated, they should be made explicit to trainees. These findings establish a foundational framework for an ongoing real-time Delphi study with an international panel of police trainers, researchers, and pedagogues, aimed at developing a consensus definition and validating the attribute framework. Clarifying the training-scars construct is both a scholarly imperative and a practical necessity for improving officer safety and training efficacy.
The Family Liaison Officer (FLO) role within Policing is to support a victim’s family members during their most challenging time, whilst also playing a key part in the ongoing criminal investigation. Given the trauma FLOs witness while assisting families, it is surprising that the impact of this role has not been subject to much academic research to date. This paper aims to explore the effects of family liaison work on police officers in England and Wales who undertake this role. Using a cross-sectional survey, Secondary Traumatic Stress and wellbeing levels were measured in a sample of FLOs (N = 394). Alongside examining the impact of the role, this paper identifies and explores the influence of several potential ‘protective factors’ against the impact of negative events: Locus of Control (LoC) (Rotter, 1966) and resilience. Very high levels of secondary trauma were found in the FLOs sample, with the greatest predictor of poor wellbeing found to be the non-work-related effects of personal distress experienced in the past twelve months, resilience levels, and LoC measures. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of improving police occupational health and for further academic research.
Understanding how individuals with mental illness experience interactions with police officers provides essential insight for improving crisis response policy and practice. This qualitative study examined the lived experiences of thirteen adults in Canada who encountered police during mental health crises. Using grounded theory, in-depth interviews were analyzed to identify patterns of fear, powerlessness, and stigma, as well as moments of empathy and support. Participants described their experiences as shaped by officers’ communication styles, perceived respect, and the balance of control during encounters. Positive experiences were associated with empathy, patience, and collaboration, while negative experiences often reflected coercion and a lack of understanding of mental illness. The findings emphasize the need for trauma-informed, person-centered, and de-escalation-based approaches within policing. Policy implications include the expansion of joint police–mental health response models and the integration of mental health training into standard police education. This study contributes to evidence-based discussions on police reform and the advancement of humane crisis intervention strategies.
Police are often becoming primary responders to people experiencing mental illness (PMI), frequently managing crises that fall outside traditional law enforcement roles. Police-PMI encounters are complex, resource-intensive, and often associated with adverse outcomes. Yet the evidence base on how such interactions occur and what influences their outcomes lacks a comprehensive understanding. To address this gap, a systematic literature review was conducted to synthesise the contemporary research on police interactions with PMI within Commonwealth countries over the past decade. Literature searches were conducted across eight databases using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. This process resulted in a final sample of 20 peer-reviewed empirical studies. Data were extracted on interaction dynamics, characteristics and experiences of the key parties involved, theoretical perspectives used, methodological approaches employed, and the effectiveness of different response models. The reviewed studies indicate that police-PMI interactions were most commonly crisis-driven, frequently involved individuals with prior police contact, and often resulted in arrest with the use of force or involuntary transport. Across the included literature, police officers commonly reported limited mental health training and unclear operational guidance, while PMI frequently described fear, distrust, and misinterpretation of crisis-related behaviours. Findings related to specialist response models such as co-response and Crises Intervention Teams (CIT) were mixed, with some studies reporting reductions in use of force but limited evidence of reduced arrest or transport rates. Overall, the review identified persistent systemic gaps remain, strained frontline responses, and a limited evidence base, indicating the need for improved training, stronger cross-sector collaboration, and broader, more inclusive research to inform safe and more effective police-PMI interactions.
