This study analysed skill efficacy in relation to successful rally, set and match outcomes in elite men's volleyball, with consideration given to the potential impact of complexes. Footage from 26 pool-stage matches, across 232 players, of the 2022 F & eacute;d & eacute;ration Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) Men's World Championships were coded. Mixed-effects logistic regression models assessed how one-unit increases in skill efficacy influenced the odds of success at each outcome level. All skills positively influenced rally, set and match outcomes, except for block efficacy, which demonstrated uncertainty at the match level. Considering odds ratios, spike efficacy exerted the greatest effect on rally outcome (5.73), whilst setting was most influential (1.43) and for match outcome (1.35) along with serve receive (1.34). The conversion of odds ratios to predicted probability and subsequent analysis provided novel insight into the magnitude of skill efficacy increments on success likelihood. Regarding complexes, only the slope of efficacy for defence varied significantly across complexes for both rally (p < 0.01) and match (p = 0.04) outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of aligning skill development priorities with the specific performance outcome level, supporting efficacy-based, context-sensitive performance analysis frameworks for elite volleyball coaching, with implications for talent identification and development.
This study examined key game performance indicators and their thresholds associated with win probability in men's elite handball, analysing data from 388 matches across the four most recent Men's World Championships. Using an XGBoost machine learning model with SHAP (Shapley additive explanations) for interpretability, we identified the relative contributions of 18 performance indicators to match outcomes. The model demonstrated strong predictive accuracy (test area under the curve = 0.896; accuracy = 0.791). The 9 m shot success rate, block rate, technical fault rate, assist rate, and steal rate were the most influential indicators. Threshold analysis suggested that a 9 m shot success rate above approximately 40% and a block rate above approximately 3% may be associated with a higher probability of winning, while a technical fault rate above approximately 20% may be associated with a lower probability of winning. Marginal gains from any single indicator plateaued, suggesting an upper limit to their impact. These findings provide insights into the importance of specific performance indicators and their reference thresholds for coaching and tactical decision-making in elite handball. The integration of machine learning with explainable outputs provides practical insights for performance analysis in invasion sports.
Research on visual exploratory activity (VEA), or scanning, in soccer has primarily focussed on in-possession scenarios, where higher scan rates are associated with improved performance. However, little is known about defenders' VEA out of possession, despite its importance for anticipation and positioning. This study examined the VEA of 16 English National Youth League academy defenders using manually coded VEO footage. Three out-of-possession phases were captured: (1) periods of >= 10 seconds without ball contact; (2) the 10 seconds prior to an opposition set piece; and (3) the 10 seconds preceding a positive defensive action (e.g. interception). A total of 696 clipped phases were analysed. Linear mixed models revealed significant differences in scan rate across phases (p < 0.05). Scan rates were the highest before set pieces (M = 0.32 scans/s, 95% CI [0.29, 0.35]), lowest before positive defensive actions (M = 0.17 scans/s, 95% CI [0.14, 0.21]) and intermediate during prolonged defending (M = 0.24 scans/s, 95% CI [0.20, 0.28]). These findings indicate defensive scanning is phase-dependent, informing practice on how defenders can optimise their scanning out of possession. Future research should investigate other variables affecting defenders' VEA, the information defenders look for and if these findings are similar in elite defenders.
This study examined how formal education and professional experience are associated with learning preferences, perceived competence, and coaching behaviours among Brazilian Taekwondo coaches. A retrospective cross-sectional design was conducted in two phases. In Phase 1, 129 coaches completed validated questionnaires assessing learning situations and coaching competencies, and in Phase 2, a subsample of 26 coaches was observed during official competitions using a structured behavioural analysis system. More experienced coaches attributed greater importance to strategic and relational competencies (p = 0.005-0.041) and reported higher engagement in mediated (p = 0.029) and internal learning situations (p = 0.026), although perceived mastery did not differ between groups. Coaches with a Physical Education degree demonstrated higher perceived mastery in reflective competencies (p = 0.013). Behavioural analysis revealed that academic background and experience were associated with distinct coaching profiles (p < 0.001). The formally educated coaches displayed more motivational and socio-affective behaviours, whereas more experienced coaches relied more on instructional communication. These findings highlight that formal education and practical experience contribute through complementary mechanisms, suggesting that coach education programmes in Taekwondo should integrate pedagogical training with opportunities for reflective and context-based learning to optimise coaching effectiveness.
Shared mental models (SMMs) have been identified as a key psychological construct that underpins team coordination.This pragmatic mixed-methods pilot study, embedded within the Irish women's international rugby union team (n = 39), examined the development of SMMs through a simulation-based intervention. Across a 10-week competitive period, participants completed weekly video-based tasks, bookended by pre- and post-intervention assessments using the Shared Mental Models in Team Sports Questionnaire (SMMTSQ). SMMs coherence increased significantly following the intervention. Both team (M_pre = 166.21, M_post = 199.53, p = 0.003) and individual (M_pre = 86.13, M_post = 103.65, p = 0.003) understanding improved, with an overall increase in understanding (M_pre = 252.33, M_post = 303.18, p = 0.002). Qualitative findings (n = 8) indicated that players and staff experienced the intervention as well-integrated within the training week and a valuable tool for informing coaching practice. These findings provide preliminary support for simulation-based pedagogical approaches to develop shared understanding in high performance team sport. The study also extends the role of the Performance Analyst towards a more proactive pedagogical approach.
This study determined how modifications to hockey stick length influenced metabolic cost, acceleration, maximum speed and agility in para ice-hockey athletes. We measured rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production during submaximal on-ice skating, maximum straightaway skating speed and acceleration, and time to complete a custom agility course for 16 elite male para ice-hockey athletes (age, 27 +/- 8 y; para ice-hockey experience, 12 +/- 6 y) while they used three stick lengths: a recommended length, and 5.1 cm longer and shorter than recommended. We found no significant changes in skating speed (6.69, 6.71 and 6.88 m/s), acceleration (1.71 m/s(2), 1.76 m/s(2) and 1.76 m/s(2)) or agility course completion (33.46, 33.52 and 33.42 s) across the short, recommended, and long stick lengths, respectively (p > 0.05). The metabolic cost of skating was 4.8% lower when using the long compared to short sticks but was not statistically significant (p = 0.074). Stick lengths +/- 5.1 cm from athlete-specific recommended lengths do not change para ice-hockey-related performance metrics. Further research of equipment selection such as stick configuration (i.e. length and mass) on biomechanical movement, injury risk and performance outcomes is warranted to inform decision making for para ice-hockey athletes.
This study examined the influence of relative chronological age on competitive success among 1,035 Slovenian tennis players across the U12, U14, U16, U18, and senior categories. Using a retrospective cross-sectional design, official national ranking data for male and female players were analysed. Birth dates were grouped into quarters, and birth-quarter distributions were assessed using chi-square tests, while competitive performance (ranking position and ranking points) was analysed using Kruskal-Wallis tests. Expected birth-quarter frequencies were based on Slovenian national birth statistics (Q1 = 24.67%, Q2 = 25.35%, Q3 = 25.61%, Q4 = 24.37%). A significant deviation from expected distribution was observed only among U18 males (chi & sup2; = 8.28, p = .041), with Q2 overrepresentThis study examined the influence of relative chronological age on competitive success among 1,035 Slovenian tennis players across the U12, U14, U16, U18, and senior categories. Using a retrospective cross-sectional design, official national ranking data for male and female players were analysed. Birth dates were grouped into quarters, and birth-quarter distributions were assessed using chi-square tests, while competitive performance (ranking position and ranking points) was analysed using Kruskal-Wallis tests. Expected birth-quarter frequencies were based on Slovenian national birth statistics (Q1 = 24.67%, Q2 = 25.35%, Q3 = 25.61%, Q4 = 24.37%). A significant deviation from expected distribution was observed only among U18 males (chi & sup2; = 8.28, p = .041), with Q2 overrepresented and Q1 underrepresented. Post hoc analysis confirmed that the effect was driven by differences between Q2 and Q1, while Q3 and Q4 did not differ significantly from expected values. The effect size was medium (Cram & eacute;r's V = 0.164). No statistically significant differences in ranking position or ranking points were found between birth quarters in any age-sex category (all p > .05). These findings suggest that relative age has a limited and inconsistent influence on competitive success in Slovenian tennis, supporting developmentally appropriate and long-term athlete development pathways.ed and Q1 underrepresented. Post hoc analysis confirmed that the effect was driven by differences between Q2 and Q1, while Q3 and Q4 did not differ significantly from expected values. The effect size was medium (Cram & eacute;r's V = 0.164). No statistically significant differences in ranking position or ranking points were found between birth quarters in any age-sex category (all p > .05). These findings suggest that relative age has a limited and inconsistent influence on competitive success in Slovenian tennis, supporting developmentally appropriate and long-term athlete development pathways.
This study aimed to quantify and compare training and match load across non-congested and congested microcycles in academy football. Twenty-four under-19 Italian Serie A academy football players competing in national and international tournaments were monitored across a competitive season using external and internal load measures. Microcycles were classified either as non-congested (>4 days between consecutive matches) or congested (<= 4 days between consecutive matches). Load was analysed relative to match proximity: two days (MD-2), one day (MD-1) before the match and match day (MD). Linear mixed models and Cohen's d effect sizes were used for analysis. A significant microcycle type & times; training day interaction was observed for duration, total distance, session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and sRPE training load (sRPE-TL). On MD-2 duration, total distance, sRPE and sRPE-TL were significantly higher in non-congested compared to congested microcycles (p < 0.05, d = 0.27-1.01). On MD-1, total distance was significantly higher in non-congested compared to congested microcycles (p < 0.001, d = 0.36). No significant differences were observed on MD (p > 0.05, d = -0.22-0.20). Congested microcycles are characterised by reduced training volume, suggesting that training duration is adjusted to facilitate recovery in academy football players.
Game Models have gained prominence in modern football coaching as a framework for shaping team organisation and decision-making. A Game Model guides team behaviour through tactical principles, influencing both training design and game plans. However, applications often overemphasise predefined patterns of play and coach-led directives, which may constrain players' adaptability in dynamic match contexts. Such approaches may reduce player autonomy and exposure to the informational complexity of team sports performance. This paper presents an ecological dynamics perspective on Game Models, positioning them as adaptive, principle-based frameworks shaped through ongoing player-environment interactions. Drawing on affordances in ecological psychology, Game Models are reframed as dynamic systems that support perception-action coupling rather than prescribing fixed solutions to rehearse in practice. From this perspective, practice design emphasises representative information, perceptual attunement, and verbal feedback supporting decision-making. Practice environments may promote co-adaptation, self-organisation, and shared tactical intentions, with tactical principles acting as attentional anchors that guide performance behaviours in response to evolving task and environmental constraints. Practical examples are provided to illustrate how an affordance-based conceptual framework may support player development, tactical flexibility, and skill transfer. The paper aligns learning design with the perceptual-motor and cognitive demands of football.
Quantitative analyses of offensive transitions in football have largely relied on event-based indicators and absolute pitch zones, offering limited insight into how the opponent's defensive organisation constrains post-regain behaviour. Consequently, transition speed is often treated as inherently desirable despite its dependence on situational context. Using optical tracking data, this study proposes a context-dependent framework that models the opposition's defensive structure at the moment of ball regain. Event and tracking data from 198 regular-season matches in the 2025 K League 1 season were analysed, yielding 26,324 in-play transitions. Defensive units were identified using a unit-based clustering approach. Transition contexts were then defined by the spatial relationship between the ball and these units. Post-regain behaviour within the first 6 s was classified into five patterns. Quick progression accounted for approximately one-third of transitions, but its likelihood varied markedly across defensive contexts and teams. Regains occurring behind the opponent's deepest defensive unit were most conducive to rapid progression, whereas regains within or in front of organised defensive structures more often resulted in slower or disrupted outcomes. These findings demonstrate that offensive transitions are context-dependent tactical events rather than isolated speed-based actions.
The growing tactical and physical versatility of modern basketball challenges the traditional use of fixed playing positions to interpret player performance and guide training design. Alternative frameworks, such as Individual Playing Roles (IPRs), suggest classifying players by their statistical contributions rather than their usual positions. This study aimed to examine how professional and semi-professional Spanish basketball teams currently classify players to tailor training tasks and optimise performance. A six-section online cross-sectional survey was completed by strength and conditioning coaches from 43 Spanish teams competing across the first four tiers during the 2023-2024 and 2024-2025 seasons. Most teams (91%) reported implementing some level of individualisation; however, tactical personalisation mainly remained based on traditional playing positions (63%), with limited adoption of other strategies and IPRs (5%). Physical individualisation mainly relied on force-velocity profile (18%), fitness peak (16%), and countermovement jump assessments (8%), while load individualisation strategies most often used the acute: chronic workload ratio (7%). Differences among leagues in the number of individualisation strategies applied were not statistically significant (p = 0.184). This study offers a current and comprehensive overview of the strategies used and parameters considered by many surveyed teams and environments, highlighting a gap between emerging performance-analysis concepts and their practical application.
Professional golf tournaments provide a unique context for examining performance across four consecutive rounds of play, yet previous research has mainly focused on isolated situations or aggregate outcomes rather than tournament-wide performance trajectories. Using more than 21,000 player-tournament observations from the PGA Tour (2017-2024), this study applied a model-based clustering approach to identify round-by-round performance profiles based on changes in leaderboard position. Four distinct performance profiles emerged: players who remained consistently competitive throughout the event, players who progressively declined after a strong start, players who substantially recovered following a poor opening round, and players who showed unstable performance patterns despite temporary improvements. Subsequent multinomial logistic regression analyses examined associations between cluster membership and world ranking, years of professional experience, tournament type (Major vs. regular), home advantage, and strokes gained, with the model showing modest explanatory power, the identified associations should therefore be interpreted with caution and considered exploratory in nature. Overall, the identified performance trajectories provide practical applications for coaches, sport psychologists, and performance staff seeking to adapt preparation and support strategies across the four-round structure of elite professional golf, while also offering a foundation for future research examining how performance evolves across professional golf tournaments.
This study investigated the influence of playing position and contextual factors on worst-case scenarios (WCS) running performance in the Chinese Super League (CSL) and developed position-specific predictive models. Match data from 333 professional players across 2101 observations were analysed using a rolling time-window approach. Total distance (TD), high-intensity running distance (HIR; >= 19.8 km/h), and the number of high-intensity runs (NHIR) were modelled using power-law functions. Playing position significantly influenced all model parameters (p < 0.001), whereas contextual factors showed selective effects. Score differential affected the "n" parameter of TD and HIR (p < 0.001), while match outcome influenced "n" parameter of TD (p = 0.004). Team strength significantly affected "c" parameter in TD and HIR models (p < 0.001). Central midfielders exhibited the highest TD "c" values, whereas wide players and forwards showed greater "c" and "n" values than central defenders for HIR and NHIR (p < 0.001). The models exhibited excellent fit (R-2 = 0.93-0.96) and predictive accuracy, with MAPE ranging from <8% (total distance) to 21.9%-36.9% (high-intensity metrics). Positional roles primarily dictated WCS performance, while contextual factors had limited influence. This scalable framework helps practitioners estimate peak demands and design position-specific training intensities aligned with match-play.
The goal of this study was to examine the impact of short-interval consecutive goals (SICGs), defined as >= 2 goals scored within three minutes, on team performance in elite women's futsal. Goal timings from 132 matches of the 2024-2025 Portuguese Women's Senior Futsal League were extracted from official reports. Goals inside and outside SICGs, match result, and league ranking were recorded. Path analysis using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) tested model fit and direct and indirect paths among all variables. SICGs occurred in most matches and accounted for over half of all goals, clustering in the opening and closing periods of each half. Scoring SICGs was positively associated with points ((beta = .30, p = .003), whereas conceding SICGs was negatively associated ((beta = -.24, p = .003). Combined, these effects explained 50% of the variance in points earned and 40% in final league ranking. SICGs appear to be critical tactical and psychological junctures in elite women's futsal, with implications for match outcomes and season-long classification. Coaches may benefit from anticipating these high-leverage periods to enhance match management and prepare players for moments of advantage or disadvantage. Future research should clarify the role of SICGs in psychological momentum.
Blood flow restriction (BFR) combines low-load strength and aerobic exercise to improve athletic performance. This study examined the effects of interval running with and without BFR (IR-BFR; IR) on well-being, RPE and performance in soccer players. Players (16.1 +/- 0.6 years; 21.1 +/- 1.0 kg/m(2)) were randomly allocated to IR-BFR or IR. Training consisted of 4 & times; 5 min runs at 50-60% maximal aerobic speed. Well-being (fatigue, sleep, soreness, stress, mood, Hooper Index [HI]) and RPE were monitored daily. CMJ, maximal aerobic speed, repeated sprint ability, and VO2max, assessed pre- and post. IR-BFR showed lower HI at week 1 (p < 0.01) but higher at week 3 (p < 0.05) compared with IR. Within IR-BFR, HI was lowest at week 1 versus weeks 3, 5, and 6 (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in RPE or performance variables (p > 0.05). However, moderate effect sizes favoured the IR-BFR group for CMJ best (Cohen's d(unbiased) = 0.55, 95% CI [-0.36, 1.48]) and Vmax (Cohen's d(unbiased) = 0.68, 95% CI [-0.23, 1.64]). IR with BFR may initially reduce well-being but improve over time. CMJ and Vmax tended to favour IR-BFR, without differences, and should be interpreted cautiously given the wide CIs.
As football continues to evolve in speed, tactical complexity, and cognitive demand, concerns have grown around the limited representative value of traditional, drill-based coaching. This article offers a reflective account of how game-based learning (GBL) - situated within ecological dynamics, the constraints-led approach (CLA), motor praxeology, and wider game-based pedagogies - was interpreted and applied within the Wrexham AFC Academy. Rather than presenting GBL as a proven superior method, the paper explores how representative task design, constraint manipulation, and small-sided games were used to create learning environments that more closely reflected the informational and tactical conditions of competition. Drawing on sustained engagement with coaches, performance analysts, and session observations, the article discusses the practical and cultural adjustments required for such an approach, including shifts in coach behaviour, player involvement, and the growing role of analysts as co-designers of practice. The account acknowledges tensions, limitations, and contextual dependencies, positioning GBL not as a prescriptive solution but as a philosophical orientation for designing practice that embraces complexity and fosters more reflective, adaptive forms of learning in football.
