Graphene-based materials, including graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), graphane, graphone, fluorographene, graphyne, and graphdiyne, have emerged as a versatile family of two-dimensional carbon nanomaterials with exceptional potential for pesticide detection, environmental remediation, and sustainable agriculture. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of recent advances in the synthesis, characterization, physicochemical properties, and pesticide detection and removal applications of graphene derivatives. Particular emphasis is placed on the relationship between synthesis strategies, structural engineering, defect modulation, surface functionalization, electronic properties, and adsorption behavior, which collectively determine the performance of graphene-derived materials in pesticide sensing, adsorption, and photocatalytic degradation. The review further discusses the distinctive properties of graphene derivatives, including their ultrahigh specific surface area, tunable electronic conductivity, excellent mechanical strength, rich surface chemistry, and superior adsorption capacity, which enable enhanced interaction with pesticide molecules and improved analytical sensitivity and catalytic efficiency. In addition, the review highlights the major challenges associated with large-scale synthesis, cost-effective production, structural stability, material reproducibility, selectivity in complex environmental matrices, environmental fate, toxicity, and industrial commercialization. This review bridges the gap between fundamental material design and real-world agricultural and environmental applications, providing valuable insights for the development of next-generation graphene-based technologies for efficient pesticide monitoring, removal, and sustainable environmental management.
Graphene-based nanoelectronic biosensors have emerged as transformative platforms for early disease detection due to their exceptional electrical conductivity, high carrier mobility, and large surface-to-volume ratio enabling ultra-sensitive biomolecular interactions. This review critically examines the integration of graphene and its derivatives, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), into advanced biosensing systems, emphasizing structure–property relationships governing analytical performance. Key device configurations, including field-effect transistors (FETs), electrochemical sensors, and optical platforms, are analyzed, demonstrating detection limits ranging from femtomolar to attomolar levels depending on sensor architecture, target biomarker, and sensing conditions, with rapid response times under optimized conditions. Surface functionalization strategies such as covalent modification and π–π stacking are highlighted for improving selectivity toward proteins, nucleic acids, and small-molecule biomarkers while reducing nonspecific interactions. Applications across oncology, infectious diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders illustrate multiplexed detection and clinically relevant sensitivity. Compared to conventional systems, graphene-enabled biosensors exhibit superior signal-to-noise ratios and real-time monitoring capabilities in complex biological environments. Challenges including reproducibility, long-term stability, and scalable fabrication are discussed, along with emerging solutions involving hybrid nanomaterials and microfluidic integration. The review concludes with a translational perspective on point-of-care and wearable biosensing technologies, highlighting graphene nanoelectronics as a key driver of precision diagnostics.
This work reports a sustainable route for synthesizing a silver nanoparticle/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite supported on activated carbon (AgNPs/rGO/AC810), using aqueous extract of guarana seed skins as a natural reducing and stabilizing agent. The extract promotes the reduction of Ag⁺ to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and graphene oxide (GO) to reduced graphene oxide (rGO), followed by deposition onto commercial activated carbon (AC810). UV–vis spectroscopy revealed the Ag surface plasmon resonance band and provided evidence of GO reduction to rGO, with the GO band at λmax ≈ 235 nm disappearing and a broad rGO band appearing at λmax ≈ 398 nm. XRD analysis revealed the face-centered cubic structure of metallic Ag with an average crystallite size of 11.39 nm. HR-TEM images showed uniformly dispersed spherical AgNPs anchored on rGO sheets and within AC810 pores, with average sizes of 8 nm in AgNPs/rGO and 13 nm in AgNPs/rGO/AC810. Raman and ATR-FTIR analyses supported the partial restoration of sp² domains, with ID/IG values of 1.20 for GO and 1.10 for AgNPs/rGO, and characteristic carbon functionalities. BET/BJH analysis revealed a high surface area of approximately 600 m² g⁻¹ and a predominantly mesoporous structure, favorable for active-site accessibility and mass transport. DLS/zeta potential results indicated colloidal stability under alkaline conditions, with hydrodynamic diameter around 240 nm and zeta potential near − 30 to − 35 mV. Electrochemical characterization showed a significant increase in ECSA from 0.003 cm² for GCE to 0.177 cm² for AgNPs/rGO/AC810/GCE, corresponding to an approximately 59-fold enhancement and a roughness factor increase from 0.03 to 1.77, indicating a high density of accessible active sites. These results indicate that AgNPs/rGO/AC810 is a low-cost and versatile nanocomposite platform for future CO₂RR studies.
Recent advances in forensic science highlight the emerging role of nanotechnology and sensor-based systems in enhancing diagnostic accuracy and sensitivity. These two techniques, though complementary, offer distinct mechanisms of action that innovate the forensic investigations. Advances in nanomaterial-based assays for biological fluid analysis enable rapid, reliable molecular-level detection, thereby improving the accuracy of forensic diagnostics. Carbon-based nanomaterials, including graphene, carbon dots, and carbon nanotubes, are increasingly exploited for their tunable optical, electrochemical, and surface properties, which enable ultrasensitive detection of illicit drugs, explosive residues, toxic metals, and trace biomolecules, while also enhancing latent fingerprint visualisation. Parallel advances in sensor engineering have enabled highly selective optical, electrochemical, and biosensing systems capable of detecting minute forensic evidence directly at crime scenes. Carbon nanomaterial-based sensing platforms have significantly advanced forensic science by addressing the limitations of conventional analytical techniques, particularly in terms of sensitivity, portability, and response time. The incorporation of these nanomaterials with miniaturised, digitally integrated sensing devices has shifted forensic analysis toward real-time, on-site decision making, reducing reliance on centralised laboratories and minimising sample degradation and handling errors. This review examines recent progress in materials, such as carbon and its derivatives, sensing strategies, and application-specific performance metrics, and highlights current challenges and unmet needs in forensic applications. Collectively, these developments underscore the growing role of nanomaterials-based sensing technologies in strengthening evidentiary reliability and advancing modern forensic investigations.
Flexible piezoresistive pressure sensors with high sensitivity, mechanical robustness, and wide detection range are critical for next-generation wearable and human–machine interface (HMI) applications. Conductive elastomer composite (CEC) materials have received a lot of attention because to their high sensitivity, wide operating range, and consistent output. Single conductive fillers placed in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomer matrix were shown to aggregate and/or agglomerate, necessitating a large filler quantity. In this study, a porous polydimethylsiloxane (pPDMS) composite incorporating conductive carbon black (CB) and semiconductive graphene oxide (GO) was developed to achieve tunable electromechanical performance. The hybridisation of CB and GO within the PDMS network establishes an efficient conductive architecture that combines the high electrical conductivity of CB with the interfacial modulation capability of GO. The semiconductive GO facilitates charge tunnelling and enhances contact resistance variation under compression, while CB provides continuous electron pathways, resulting in a synergistically improved piezoresistive response. The fabricated pPDMS + CB+GO sensor exhibited a dual-regime absolute sensitivity of 83.15 kΩ/kPa (0–3 kPa) and normalised sensitivity of 0.35 kPa⁻¹ (3–80 kPa), along with rapid response and recovery times (2.9/2.1 s) and excellent cyclic stability. The porous structure further enhances deformability and stress distribution, enabling reliable detection of both subtle physiological signals and large-scale body movements. This study presents a simple, cost-effective, and scalable strategy for engineering hybrid conductive–semiconductive networks in elastomeric matrices, offering a promising platform for high-performance, flexible pressure sensors in wearable health monitoring and interactive electronics. All measurements gave reliable data and were compared with literature data.
The development of 2D materials with multifunctional capabilities in 2004 gravitated toward electrochemical storage applications because of their major contributions, such as high aspect ratio, flexible dimensionality, and distinct physicochemical properties. Among this category, a group of materials called MXenes (Mn+1XnTx, where M = transition metal, X = carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides, and T = surface termination groups) has predominantly attracted attention in charge storage devices due to their versatile synthesis process, wide variety of members, tunable surface functional groups, and adjustable interlayer spacing. The main focus was to synthesize titanium-based Ti3C2Tx from its MAX phase and then introduce a simple, scalable, low-temperature-assisted vapor-phase reaction method to incorporate selenium, a non-metal, and test the material as an anode for two alkali-ion batteries. To confirm the presence of selenium, various characterization techniques, including EDS and TEM-assisted elemental mapping, were employed. Through this straightforward technique, titanium carbide MXene with selenium electrodes enhances electrochemical performance and chemical stability in lithium- and sodium-ion batteries via surface functionalization. A minor concentration of selenium significantly improves the material’s capacity; for instance, the pristine electrode showed a capacity of 93.8 mAh/g at 500 mA/g, while the selenized electrode exhibited 166 mAh/g at the same rate without compromising stability for LIBs. Furthermore, the study investigated the material’s charge storage mechanism using the contribution analysis method and confirmed that certain surface modifications can improve the material’s capability and expand its potential as an anode for alkali-ion batteries.
The emergence of 2D graphene-based materials has attracted development of nanocomposites for decontamination of water. In this study, iron-based graphene nanocomposites (GNCs) were synthesized from plastic and bioplastic waste using pyrolysis and chemical exfoliation methods. The GNC synthesized from bioplastic displayed surface area and micropore volume of 407 m2 g− 1 and 1.158 cm3 g− 1, respectively. The N- and O- containing functional groups were found at 1196 cm− 1 and 1604 cm− 1 in the infrared spectrum. The existence of Fe-O bond was confirmed at 569 cm− 1. The GNCs achieved maximum adsorption capacities of 38.6 ± 1.6 mg g− 1 for As(V), 39.1 ± 2.1 mg g− 1 for Cd(II) and 28.7 ± 1.1 mg g− 1 for Pb(II) at pH 7.0 ± 0.5. The adsorption of metal ions onto GNCs followed Langmuir isotherm and molecular models were developed to understand the binding of metal ions onto iron based GNCs. The GNCs were reusable up to 10 cycles without significant reduction in their adsorption capacity. The TCLP and Kirby-Bauer tests confirm that the spent GNCs can be disposed-off in landfills safely. This study reports upcycling of recalcitrant plastic/bioplastic waste into value-added materials for environment clean-up.
Graphene oxide–fatty acid nanocomposites were developed to address the limitations of pristine GO in photocatalytic dye degradation and thermal resilience. GO was synthesized using the modified Hummers’ method and functionalized with biologically derived fatty acid (myristic acid, MA) through solution-phase assembly. Comprehensive characterization via UV–Vis, FTIR, XRD, SEM, and TGA confirmed successful composite formation and structural modifications. Under solar irradiation, the GO–MA composite exhibited enhanced methyl orange degradation efficiency due to improved interfacial compatibility and charge transport. Simultaneously, fatty acid integration increased thermal stability by delaying GO decomposition and reducing oxidative stress. These findings highlight the dual functionality of GO–fatty acid nanohybrids and their potential as eco-friendly materials for scalable wastewater remediation applications.
This study introduces a bismuth-doped zirconia-graphene oxide (Bi-ZrO2-GO) nanocomposite that was successfully synthesized and used to effectively remove the Amido Black dye from aqueous solutions. Structural and surface analyses were conducted using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-DRS), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). These methods confirmed the successful integration of Bi into the ZrO2 lattice and its even distribution within the porous GO matrix. The photocatalytic performance was evaluated under natural sunlight. Kinetic studies indicated that dye degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, with a maximum removal efficiency of 95.02
Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) are promising candidates for next-generation solid-state lithium-ion batteries due to their mechanical flexibility, ease of fabrication, and potential for enhanced safety compared to liquid electrolytes, but their practical applications remain restricted by low ionic conductivity and sensitivity to operating conditions. In this work, high-quality few-layered Ti3C2Tx MXene nanoflakes were synthesized via a mild, Li-ion-assisted etching route, offering a safer alternative to conventional HF-based methods, and incorporated into PVA, PAN, and PVDF polymer matrices to form highly conductive composite SPEs. Temperature- and humidity-dependent in-plane and through-plane ionic conductivity measurements were performed between 20 and 80 °C at 70
Water pollution remains a critical global challenge driven by industrialization, urban expansion, and agricultural activities, requiring efficient and sustainable wastewater treatment technologies. Graphene oxide (GO)–based composites have gained increasing attention due to their high adsorption capacity and tunable surface chemistry; however, intrinsic limitations of pristine GO, such as aggregation and poor recoverability, have driven the development of supported and hybrid composite systems. This study systematically maps and quantifies the scientific evolution of GO composites applied to wastewater treatment, under the hypothesis that research trends increasingly favor hybrid materials designed to enhance stability, selectivity, and reusability. A comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 406 peer-reviewed articles published between 2012 and 2024 was conducted using Scopus and Web of Science databases, with bibliometric indicators and network analyses performed in Bibliometrix® and VOSviewer®. The results indicate a rapidly expanding research field, with an annual publication growth rate of 7.9
Two-dimensional (2D) atomic-layered material tungsten diselenide (WSe2) has attracted tremendous research attention due to its potential applications in next-generation electronics. In this work, we present a chemical vapor deposition method for synthesizing high-quality monolayer WSe2 thin films. Through systematic optimization of the selenium precursor supply, uniform monolayer WSe2 films were achieved with a size of up to 1 cm × 1 cm. Utilizing these continuous monolayer WSe2 films, a bottom-gate field-effect transistor (FET) array was fabricated to systematically characterize carrier transport properties, including the On/Off ratio and hole mobility. Electrical characterization of these p-type FET devices revealed a hole mobility of 65 cm2 V− 1 s− 1 and on/off ratio of > 107, which are comparable to those reported for single-crystal WSe2 FETs. These results demonstrate that the high-performance monolayer WSe2 FETs establish a viable pathway for integrating 2D materials into next-generation p- type electronics.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and conventional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy are often limited by toxicity, drug resistance, and relapse. Nanotechnology offers new opportunities to overcome these barriers through the development of multifunctional nanoplatforms. Among them, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have attracted significant interest owing to their ultrasmall size, tunable photoluminescence, high drug-loading capacity, and favorable biocompatibility. This review summarizes recent advances in GQD-based strategies for cancer therapy, with a focus on synthesis methods, targeted drug delivery, and therapeutic mechanisms, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). We also discuss their biocompatibility, safety profile, and current limitations, highlighting key translational challenges such as scalable green synthesis, standardized toxicological assessments, and the integration of GQDs into multimodal treatment approaches. By addressing these challenges, GQDs may progress from experimental systems to reliable clinical tools for precision oncology.
Industrial scaleup of MXene synthesis has faced many challenges, both in the process safety and nanosheet yield. As a step toward the scalability of MXenes, we carried out a one-to-one comparison of the industrial scalability and application performance of two methods for producing Ti3C2Tz MXenes: LiF-HCl acid etching and Lewis acid molten salt etching. This study had an emphasis on nanoscale structure, electrical conductivity, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and supercapacitive properties, yield, and process scalability, both at the etched clay stage and delaminated nanosheet stage. This comparison was completed in parallel with the same starting MAX phase, chemicals, and processing equipment, where necessary. The synthesis process influences the structure and terminal groups of MXenes, altering properties and performance. Notably, the electrical conductivity was superior for acid-etched nanosheets at 2200 S/cm, compared to salt-etched nanosheets at 0.66 S/cm. For EMI shielding effectiveness and capacitance, acid-etched nanosheets performed the highest. The yield of the acid-etched nanosheets was 50
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the nanoscale, fractal aggregate graphene produced by HydroGraph Clean Power, Inc. The chemistry of the chamber explosion synthesis and the subsequent physics of the fractal aggregation are explained. This is followed by a description of the physical properties of the resulting fractal graphene aggregate (FGA). Extensive overviews of HydroGraph’s vision, core applications, and commercial approaches are given. HydroGraph FGA is a multilayer, nanographene in aggregate form produced by an ISO9001 Certified, exothermic process with a minor environmental footprint.
This study presents a novel, one-step plasma-liquid synthesis method for producing nanocomposites of carbonitride MXenes containing graphene oxide by initiating a pulsed discharge between titanium or molybdenum electrodes immersed in acetonitrile. The synthesized composites were characterized using electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). XPS and FTIR revealed the presence of Ti–N, Mo–N, and C–O bonds, thereby validating the chemical composition of the substances. Electron microscopy demonstrated an accordion-like multilayer morphology. Notably, the composites exhibited excellent photothermal conversion efficiencies of 75
Cost-effective thermal management coatings are essential for next-generation microelectronics, where rising heat fluxes demand innovative surface engineering. This study demonstrates that graphene-based coatings, engineered via scalable aerosol deposition, can dramatically enhance pool boiling heat transfer by leveraging surface morphology rather than relying solely on bulk thermal conductivity. Three coating variants were developed: two using a gas-phase detonation process with controlled oxygen-to-carbon ratios of 0.3 and 0.75, and one via liquid-phase exfoliation. These coatings were spin-coated onto copper substrates in multiple passes, producing finely textured surfaces with sub-micron graphene flakes and microscale ridges with roughness ranging between 3.2 to 5.8 μm. The optimal detonation-synthesized coating of O/C = 0.75 obtained via five passes achieved a heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of 131 kW/m 2 °C representing a 152% increase over bare copper and a critical heat flux (CHF) of 174 W/cm 2 , demonstrating 40% enhancement. Multi-scale characterization revealed that these hierarchical features amplified nucleation site density and bubble departure frequency by 68%, while hydrophobicity and increased contact angle hysteresis nearly 32% higher than copper promoted efficient microlayer evaporation. Spectroscopic analysis confirmed tunable defect densities linked to synthesis methods. These results challenge traditional conductivity-centric paradigms, showing that surface morphology and wettability are dominant in enhancing boiling heat transfer. By correlating synthesis parameters and morphological characteristics with boiling performance metrics, this work establishes a framework for designing high-performance, scalable graphene coatings for superior heat dissipation in high-power microelectronic and energy systems. However, further studies are needed to validate the long-term durability and performance of these coatings under real-world operational conditions. Graphical abstract
Silica nanosheets (SiO₂-NS) have drawn extensive interest in recent years due to their unique characteristics, including high specific surface area, narrow pore size distribution, high mechanical strength, controllable surface chemistry, and biocompatibility. Such characteristics make them excellent candidates for various applications, particularly in adsorption and sensing. However, the wet chemical synthesis of free-standing silica nanosheets with controllable thickness and textural properties remains a significant challenge. Here, we report synthetic method to synthesize flat, layered mesoporous silica nanosheets (SiO₂-NS) by chemical reduction of silicon tetrabromide (SiBr₄) using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) as a soft lamellar micelle template in a water–ethanol mixed solvent system. The resulting silica nanosheets exhibit lateral dimensions of 100–200 nm and ultrathin thicknesses of approximately 1 nm. The synthesized SiO₂-NS possesses outstanding textural properties, including a BET surface area of 971 m 2 g −1 , a mean BJH pore diameter of 2.56 nm, and a total pore volume of 0.73 cm 3 g −1 . These structural properties enable the nanosheets to function as high-performance amine sorbents and, most significantly, highly sensitive room-temperature trimethylamine (TMA) sensors. The sensors exhibit a brief recovery time and rapid response, which demonstrates the material’s promise in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and food quality applications. Graphical abstract Inorganic synthesis of silica with different morphologies as a function of CTAB concentration, and the evolution of silica nanosheets
Addressing the imperative challenges in contemporary energy storage, this study centers on lithium–sulfur batteries and their performance. Our primary aim is to examine the potential of graphene and its variants in ameliorating the identified issues associated with Li–S batteries. By exploring graphene's exceptional conductivity, mechanical strength, and elasticity, its capacity for efficient polysulfide encapsulation, fast ions and transport of electrons, and the porous electrodes have been developed. Its scope includes a thorough examination of graphene compatibility with various engineering materials, thereby presenting the application potential of Li–S battery systems. The synthesized findings collectively highlight the promising trajectory of graphene-based composites as pivotal components for forming high-performance, cost-effective Li–S batteries specifically tailored for the evolving landscape of electric vehicles. Finally, this exploration underscores the transformative potential of graphene in addressing the challenges posed by Li–S batteries, clearing the path for effective and sustainable energy storage technologies.
Viral infections pose significant global health challenges, underscoring the need for precise and rapid detection methods. Graphene, known for its exceptional physicochemical properties, has emerged as a promising material for biosensing. This study explores the use of bilayer graphene (BLG) as a sensitive platform for detecting human papilloma virus (HPV). Due to its tunable electronic properties and enhanced surface reactivity, BLG offers advantages over monolayer graphene in biosensing applications. Atomistic finite element method (AFEM) simulations using ANSYS were conducted to assess BLG's vibrational response to HPV masses ranging from 4.49 × 10−20g to 1.1673 × 10−20g under bridged boundary conditions. Both pristine and defected models were analyzed, focusing on the influence of atomic vacancies. Results revealed that zigzag configurations exhibited superior sensitivity compared to armchair ones, with 75 nm pristine BLG showing the highest vibrational frequency. The study highlights BLG’s potential for developing high-sensitivity biosensors, offering improved accuracy and faster detection. These findings suggest a promising direction for advancing viral diagnostics and overcoming current limitations in disease detection technologies.
