Abstract Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain species of fungi. These fungi can infect food crops at any stage of the crop value chain, resulting in the production of mycotoxins that are toxic to humans and animals. Sorghum is one of the important food crops in Ethiopia, where the occurrence of mycotoxins in this grain has been frequently reported. However, information on the relationships between the specific local sorghum production practices and mycotoxin contamination is rarely available. In this study, the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in the newly harvested sorghum samples was determined, as well as preharvest management practices as contamination factors. In 2022, 120 farmers in Northwest Ethiopia were interviewed about preharvest practices of sorghum fields, and 120 sorghum samples were collected right after harvest. Samples were analysed using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for a total of 33 different mycotoxins. About 75% of the samples were contaminated with at least one specific mycotoxin. The detected mycotoxins belong to one of the four mycotoxin categories, produced by Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Alternaria spp. The concentrations of regulated mycotoxins were below the EU regulatory limits except for ochratoxin A, which was found in a concentration above the EU regulatory limit for unprocessed cereal grain in four percent of the samples. Several of the investigated preharvest practices showed a significant relationship ( ) with either one or more specific mycotoxins and/or with one of the mycotoxin categories. Among these practices, the sowing method and type of fertiliser were the most positively related to multiple mycotoxin contamination. In addition, crop rotation and seed treatment practice before sowing contributed to the low mycotoxin presence. The practices of crop rotation, seed treatment, sowing, and fertiliser application can be further researched to develop a sustainable mycotoxin prevention strategy.
Abstract Ozonation is a chemical effective way for degrading mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ), but the potential health hazards of this method and the toxicity of the degradation products (DPs) remain unknown. In the present study, we evaluated the safety of a new ozonation method, along with the toxicity of AFB 1 and its DPs after ozonolysis on AFB 1 -contaminated corn (ACC), using a subacute toxicity test in rats. The animals divided into four groups: not contaminated corn, not contaminated ozonized corn, AFB 1 -contaminated corn (28 ppb), ozonized AFB 1 -contaminated corn (28 ppb) groups. Cytotoxicity of AFB 1 and its DPs was also assessed on two types of cell lines including L929 and Vero cells using MTT assay. The results of subacute toxicity assay demonstrated that AFB 1 could induce clinical signs, and caused significant changes in body weight, haematological parameters, biochemical markers and histopathology in rats. In contrast, ozonolysis exhibited significant ameliorative effects against ACC-induced toxicity in the animals. In vitro tests indicated that AFB 1 induced cytotoxicity in cells, while cells exposed to ozonized AFB 1 were much less damaged. Overall, the results suggest that this novel ozonation process is safe and could significantly reduce the toxicity of AFB 1 in corn. The findings of this research provide a valuable tool for the development of this new method in the industry to remove AFB 1 from corn without health risks.
Abstract This review aims to critically evaluate sustainable biological and green processing technologies for mycotoxin control and mitigation, identifying current challenges, knowledge gaps, and future opportunities to advance circular bioeconomy principles and climate-resilient food systems. This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines and covered studies published between 2000 and 2025. Literature searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Approximately 425 records were screened, with 80 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Included studies were peer-reviewed and focused on biological and green mycotoxin mitigation with validated experimental data, while non-English papers, conference abstracts, and methodologically weak studies were excluded. Sustainable biological and green processing technologies offer promising alternatives to conventional chemical approaches for mycotoxin control, aligning food safety objectives with circular bioeconomy and climate-resilience goals. Biological control agents, enzymatic detoxification, and eco-friendly processing methods demonstrate potential to reduce mycotoxin risks while minimising environmental footprints. However, key gaps remain, including limited field-scale validation, inconsistent efficacy under diverse agro-climatic conditions, and insufficient understanding of long-term ecological impacts. Sustainability challenges also arise from regulatory barriers, scalability constraints, and limited adoption in resource-poor settings where mycotoxin exposure is highest. Future research should prioritise integrated, systems-based approaches that combine biological mitigation with climate-smart agriculture, real-time monitoring, and predictive modelling. Advancing interdisciplinary collaboration, standardising evaluation protocols, and strengthening policy support will be critical to translating green mycotoxin mitigation strategies into resilient, safe, and sustainable food systems under changing climatic conditions.
Fungal contamination of food and feed poses a significant threat to food security, public health, this comprehensive review synthesises the findings of two decades (2010-2024) of research on the status of toxigenic fungi across key agricultural commodities. The analysis reveals that staples such as cereals (wheat, barley, maize), spices (paprika, cumin), fruits (grapes, apples, dried fruits), and coffee are widely contaminated by a diverse consortium of fungi. The genera Aspergillus (predominantly A. flavus , A. niger , and A. ochraceus ), Penicillium (notably P. expansum ), and Fusarium (including F. graminearum and F. equiseti ) are the most frequently reported, with some species demonstrating significant potential for producing mycotoxins like aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and patulin. This review critically examines the international regulatory framework, aligned with international standards, and highlights the critical risk factors including inadequate storage conditions, climatic variables, and certain agricultural practices that exacerbate contamination. Furthermore, we evaluate promising prevention and detoxification strategies explored in the context. These include the application of natural antifungal agents (essential oils from clove, rosemary, and lemon), the use of adsorbents, the biocontrol potential of lactic acid bacteria, and the critical role of cultural and physicochemical factors in modulating toxin production.
Mycotoxins, toxic metabolites of fungi, are a major food safety concern in sub-Saharan Africa, where they compromise human and animal health, reduce food security, and limit trade. This study investigated farmer perceptions, awareness, and practices related to fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination across six countries in East and West Africa (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania). Using a survey of 531 farmers, we found that 46% reported losses due to mould, with prevalence higher in East Africa (53%) than in West Africa (27%). Food losses were typically 0-20% but exceeded 60% in some cases. While most farmers (89%) reported avoiding consumption of visibly mouldy grains, 11% admitted doing so, and 74% were unaware that moulds could be harmful to health. Knowledge gaps were pronounced: 75% had never heard of mycotoxins and 88% did not know the safe grain moisture content for storage. Despite widespread use of storage technologies such as hermetic PICS bags (35%), hessian bags (30%), and polypropylene bags (28%), many farmers perceived these methods as only slightly effective. Chi-square analysis revealed significant regional differences, with East African farmers showing higher awareness of mycotoxins and safe storage practices than those in West Africa, though risky behaviours persisted in both regions. Logistic regression showed that gender, age, and access to technical knowledge were significant predictors of awareness. Specifically, women, older farmers and those with access to technical support demonstrated higher levels of awareness on fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted training on safe storage practices, improved dissemination of effective technologies, and integration of post-harvest management into extension services. Strengthening farmer knowledge and capacity is essential to reduce mycotoxin-related food losses, protect health, and enhance food security in African smallholder systems.
Aflatoxin B1(AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are among the most prevalent mycotoxins affecting poultry production, particularly in developing countries where feed quality control is limited. Clay-based binders have been widely used to reduce mycotoxin bioavailability and tissue carry-over, but their high cost restricts their adoption by smallholder farmers. This study evaluated the efficacy of locally available natural unpurified halloysite-kaolinite (B) and smectite (G) rich clays in limiting the carry-over of AFB1 and OTA from contaminated feed to broiler tissues, and their effects on growth performance. A total of 432 day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks were randomly allocated to nine dietary treatments with three replicates each. Treatments included six diets supplemented with natural clays at 1, 2, or 3 g/kg (B1-B3) and G1-G3), two diets containing commercial binders (aluminosilicate + yeast, AY; bentonite, Be), and a contaminated control diet without additive (T0). Experimental diets were naturally contaminated using mouldy groundnut cake containing >80 & micro;g/kg AFB(1) and 45.2 & micro;g/kg OTA. Growth performance parameters were recorded over a 42-day period, and AFB1 and OTA residues were quantified in liver, gizzard, and muscle tissues. Compared with the untreated control, all clay-supplemented diets significantly improved body weight gain and feed conversion ratio. Natural clays induced moderate but significant reductions in AFB1 and OTA residues across tissues, with halloysite-kaolinite at 2 g/kg and smectite at 1 g/kg showing the most consistent effects. However, commercial binders, particularly bentonite, exhibited greater overall efficacy in reducing mycotoxin carry-over. These results indicate that natural unpurified halloysite-kaolinite and smectite clays can partially mitigate the adverse effects of AFB(1) and OTA under realistic tropical contamination conditions. Although less effective than commercial binders, their local availability and low cost make them promising complementary strategies for mycotoxin risk management in poultry production systems in low-income countries.
This study investigates aflatoxin contamination in peanut products and associated socio-demographic, knowledge, and handling factors among retailers in Rwanda. A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 300 retailers across five provinces, employing structured interviews to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, aflatoxin awareness, and handling practices. Quantitative analysis of aflatoxin levels in peanut flour and kernels was performed using a portable, ISO-validated Raptor Reader Neogen Model 9680 (Neogen Corporation, Lansing, MI, USA), which interprets results obtained from lateral flow immunoassays. Data were analysed through descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings revealed that awareness of aflatoxins was limited, with only 28.3% of retailers cognizant of their presence in peanut products and 21.0% are aware of their health implications. Handling practices showed a high prevalence of kernel sorting before sale or processing (98.6%), yet inadequate packaging materials, such as buckets (44.7%) and polypropylene bags (35.3%) were commonly used. Aflatoxin concentrations in samples were substantially elevated, with a mean of 62.75 & micro;g/kg, exceeding international safety thresholds. Statistically significant differences in aflatoxin levels were observed between sample types (P < 0.05), with peanut flour exhibiting higher contamination (mean 92.47 & micro;g/kg) than peanut kernels (mean 35.31 & micro;g/kg). Notably, 69.4% of peanut flour samples and 44.2% of peanut kernel samples surpassed the Rwandan regulatory limit of 10 & micro;g/kg. Geographical analysis indicated significant inter-provincial variation, particularly between Kigali City and the Western Province. These results highlight a critical public health concern due to elevated aflatoxin levels, exacerbated by limited awareness and substandard handling practices. To mitigate exposure, targeted educational campaigns, improved storage practices, and stricter regulatory enforcement, potentially facilitated by rapid on-site screening using lateral flow immunoassays coupled with portable readers, are urgently needed to enhance food safety and protect consumers.
Aflatoxin surveillance is essential to protect public health, ensure food safety, and support compliance with national and international standards. We report findings of aflatoxins surveillance data in maize, wheat, sorghum and their products collected in Kenyan markets from 2012 to 2024. Overall, 19,984 (total aflatoxins) and 7,200 (aflatoxin B1) data points were analysed. Data quality criteria was based on representative sampling, method of analysis, accurate description of the foods tested, limit of detection (LOD) and limit (LOQ) of quantification. Several testing methods were used to obtain the aflatoxin data set including: quantitative lateral flow kits, Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC), Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography (UHPLC) and liquid chromatography coupled with the mass spectrophotometry (LC MS/MS). The findings revealed that maize flour, maize grains and composite flours were the most contaminated with total aflatoxins, with varying proportions of samples with averagely less than 15% exceeding Kenya's regulatory limits of 10 mu g/kg over the years. Majority of the maize flour, maize grains and composite flour had aflatoxin levels below the 75th percentile. Spikes in total aflatoxin contamination were recorded in 2017 and 2018. Conversely, wheat flour, rice and cooked foods consistently recorded lower levels within regulatory limits. Similar trends were observed for aflatoxin B1, where averagely less than 15% of the samples did not meet the allowable limits of 5 mu g/kg based on Kenyan standards. This study identifies maize grains, maize flour and composite flours as aflatoxin prone food commodities. Subsequently, the findings of this study underscores the food safety implications of aflatoxins through consumptions of these key staples. Therefore, our findings underscore the need for a value-chain mitigation approach from pre-harvest, harvest, drying, transportation, processing and storage. Crosscutting interventions such as surveillance and regulatory compliance, and testing are recommended.
Abstract This opinion paper focuses on the reliability of scientific evidence used in food safety and mycotoxin research, particularly citation accuracy, fictitious paragraphs, and misused or fictitious references. Poor citation practices and fictitious references can lead to misleading conclusions and compromise decisions that affect food safety, and ultimately consumers. The manuscript highlights the shared responsibility of authors, reviewers, and editors to ensure references are accurate and properly used. Better research and writing practices support more trustworthy science, which is essential for safe and sustainable food systems.
Cytochalasin E is a mycotoxin produced by the microscopic fungus Aspergillus clavatus, which can be found in malting barley and malt. The reason is inappropriate storage conditions for barley, such as high temperature and humidity, and in the case of malt, local spontaneous heating of the moistened barley layer during malting. A total of 598 barley and malt samples were analysed in our study. 43 samples were found to be contaminated above the limit of quantification, of which 4 were from barley and 39 were from malt, representing 0.98% of barley samples and 20.7% of malt samples. The concentration of cytochalasin E in barley ranged from 13.5 & micro;g/kg to 52.2 & micro;g/kg with the mean being 23.3 & micro;g/kg, and in malt, ranged from 0.6 & micro;g/kg) to 135 & micro;g/kg with the mean being 25.1 & micro;g/kg. Thus, under Central European conditions, contamination of malting barley and malt by cytochalasin E does not currently pose a health risk for consumers.
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is highly susceptible to fungal and mycotoxin contamination during postharvest handling. This study examined Aspergillus species and mycotoxin levels in dried cocoa beans from 12 farms across six Malaysian states: Pokok Jenerih and Sungai Bakap (Penang); Bagan Datuk and Chemor (Perak); Tanjung Karang and Parit Tujuh (Selangor); Tanjung Ipoh and Rembau (Negeri Sembilan); Batu Pahat and Tangkak (Johor); and Durian Tunggal and Jasin (Melaka). Forty-three Aspergillus isolates were identified using morphological traits, DNA sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and-tubulin (tub2) gene region, and phylogenetic analysis. The species included Aspergillus flavus (10 isolates), Aspergillus niger (9 isolates), Aspergillus tamarii (9 isolates), Aspergillus tubingensis (8 isolates), and Aspergillus aculeatus (7 isolates). Mycotoxigenic potential, assessed via coconut cream agar (CCA), showed all isolates fluoresced, with A. niger exhibiting moderate intensity. Among the 12 samples analysed, one sample from Pokok Jenerih, Penang (representing 8.3% of total samples), exceeded both the fungal load limit (2.9 & times; 105 cfu/g) and moisture threshold (8.91%). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed aflatoxins (AFs) in 33% and ochratoxin A (OTA) in 58% of samples. Aflatoxins (AFB1, AFBZ, AFG1, and AFGZ) in the Pokok Jenerih sample surpassed European Union (EU) safety limits, while OTA levels remained within regulatory thresholds. Co-occurrence of AFs and OTA was observed in samples from Pokok Jenerih and Jasin. The study reveals various Aspergillus species and AFs and OTA contaminations in Malaysian cocoa beans, particularly in certain regions, underscoring the urgent need for improved postharvest handling practices to ensure food safety and compliance with international standards.
This review summarises developments published in the period from mid-2024 to mid-2025 on the quantitative and qualitative determination of mycotoxins in various matrices. Important developments in all aspects of mycotoxin analysis, from sampling and quality assurance/quality control of analytical results, to the various detection and quantitation technologies ranging from biosensors to comprehensive instrumental methods are presented and discussed. This non-exhaustive summary and associated discussion covers such technology as chromatography coupled to (high resolution) mass spectrometry, detection other than mass spectrometry such as ultraviolet or fluorescence detection, biosensors, assays using alternatives to antibodies, as well as methods using predictive modelling and incorporating machine learning. This collaborative critical review intends to guide readers to relevant research by briefly presenting the most important developments in mycotoxin determination published in the past year. This review also relays limitations of the presented methodologies, in order to provide a fulsome assessment of the analytical developments.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by fungal species from the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera, frequently contaminating food products such as cereals, coffee, and dried fruits. OTA's nephrotoxic, immunosup-pressive, and potentially carcinogenic properties pose significant risks to food safety and public health. Efficient and reproducible protocols for OTA production and purification are essential to facilitate downstream applications, particularly in toxicological studies where high-purity OTA is required. This study investigated the effects of growth media, light conditions, and fungal strain variability on OTA production. Six different liquid media were first evaluated using five fungal strains to determine the optimal medium for OTA biosynthesis. The two highest-yielding strains from this screening were subsequently tested under different light conditions and time points to optimise production parameters. These optimised conditions were then applied to a large-scale screening of 53 fungal strains to assess their OTA production capabilities. Results showed that Czapek yeast autolysate medium yielded the highest OTA concentrations, with strains of Aspergillus westerdijkiae and Aspergillus steynii emerging as the highest-yielding producers. Continuous darkness significantly enhanced OTA production, with peak yields observed between days 14 and 17. The purification protocol achieved a near 100% purity level with a final recovery efficiency of 75%, ensuring a reproducible method for obtaining high-purity OTA. The optimised conditions are compatible with future isotope labelling applications, where defined media are essential. These findings contribute to standardising OTA production and purification for toxicological studies, metabolomics, and use as analytical standards.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental exposures. While the roles of pesticides and heavy metals in PD have been widely studied, mycotoxins – secondary fungal metabolites commonly found in contaminated food – remain relatively understudied, despite experimental evidence of their neurotoxic potential. This study aimed to explore the role of mycotoxin exposure and PD by quantifying plasma mycotoxin levels and evaluating dietary patterns in 26 individuals with PD compared to 26 age- and gender-matched healthy controls. Plasma samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxin content using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Dietary exposure was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to examine potential correlations between dietary habits and mycotoxin presence. Mycotoxins, including citrinin (CIT), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatin B (EnnB), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were quantified in plasma samples, with no significant differences in concentration levels or detection frequency between PD patients and controls. However, significant correlations were found between specific foods and mycotoxin levels (e.g. CIT with raisin bread, OTA with milk bread/soy, EnnB with rye bread/tortilla/whole wheat pasta, CPA with whole wheat pasta/tortilla, and TeA with white bread). While overall dietary patterns were similar, patients consumed more cake (Z = −2.406, ) and raisins (Z = −3.409, ), but less muesli (Z = −2.468, ) than controls. Although this proof-of-concept study found no significant association between mycotoxin exposure and PD status, the detection of multiple mycotoxins in both groups and their correlation with dietary patterns suggest a need for further investigation. Future research involving larger cohorts and longitudinal designs is warranted to elucidate the potential role of chronic dietary mycotoxin exposure in PD pathogenesis.
The occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and OTA-producing fungi in cocoa beans has been previously reported to be linked to harvest and post-harvest treatment conditions. The aim of this study was to identify OTA-producing fungi and OTA prevalence during harvest, fermentation, drying and storage of cocoa beans from two farms located in Mexico. Ochratoxin A analyses were performed with immunoaffinity columns and detection by high performance liquid chromatography. A high level of ochratoxigenic fungi contamination was observed during drying (78.4% +/- 13.6) and storage (70.3% +/- 3.2) in cocoa samples from farm A. In farm B, the washing process of cocoa beans after fermentation reduced pulp residues and consequently, diminished the OTA-producing fungi infection during drying (12.7% +/- 5.8) and storage (37% +/- 10.4). The main OTA-producing strain isolated from Malt Extract Agar (MEA) growth medium was Aspergillus carbonarius (14,300 mu g/kg). The prevalence of ochratoxigenic species was correlated with high levels of OTA beans during storage of cocoa beans from both farms A and B (305 +/- 15.0 and 11.3 +/- 0.5 mu g/kg, respectively) and in fresh cocoa beans from farm B (22.2 +/- 3.5 mu g/kg). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time OTA content and ochratoxigenic fungal species during cocoa processing has been reported. This allowed the identification and assessment of the sanitary risks linked to cocoa bean processing.
In its simplest form, risk is the product of hazard, i.e. toxic potency of a chemical substance, and exposure, or dose. Hazard-based decision-making is based solely on hazard without any consideration of exposure. The development of mitigation strategies should prioritise mycotoxins that regularly occur at undesirable levels in commonly consumed commodities, wherein both the toxicological profiles and effectiveness of mitigation are understood with a reasonable degree of certainty. This manuscript presents a framework for risk prioritisation of mycotoxins in food, integrating hazard assessment, exposure evaluation, and for the first time appraisal of mitigation strategies. More specifically, by (1) identifying the mycotoxins relevant for each food categories, by (2) assigning a severity score for the pivotal effect of each mycotoxin; by (3) calculating the respective food-categories' contributions to the combined exposures and by (4) assessing the existing mitigation strategies, the framework aims to prioritise mycotoxins based on their health risks and potential for effective risk mitigation. As a proof of concept, the framework was applied in two wheat-based food commodities-bread and pasta-, focusing on Ochratoxin A (OTA), Deoxynivalenol (DON), and Zearalenone (ZEN), revealing that OTA in bread is the highest priority concern, followed by DON in bread.
Due to limited control at the household level, secondary metabolites of moulds, such as mycotoxins, are primarily ingested in domestic settings. This is because some people commonly remove only the visibly mouldy portions of spoiled food and consume the remaining parts, which may still contain significant levels of these partly toxic compounds. From a food safety perspective, this raises the questions of how far these secondary metabolites diffuse into the food and how toxic they are for humans. To investigate these issues, 57 jars of mouldy jam were collected from Austrian producers. The dominant contaminating fungal species were tentatively identified as Penicillium cf. crustosum, Penicillium cf. bialowiezense, and Aspergillus cf. niger. LC-MS/MS analysis of toxin extracts of these jams revealed that 1 cm below the mycelium most secondary metabolites were reduced by >= 80%, with the exceptions of atlantinon A, nigragillin, mycophenolic acid, and roquefortine D. Subsequently, apricot roaster jam was inoculated with spores of P. cf. crustosum, P. cf. bialowiezense, and A. cf. niger and incubated for 14 days at room temperature. Secondary metabolites were again analysed, demonstrating a significant reduction in their concentration in layers beneath the mycelium. In jam samples taken 1-2 cm below the mycelium most secondary metabolites were reduced by >= 96%, except for andrastin A, quinolactacin A, and viridicatol. However, the migration of metabolites depends on the composition of the jam, including factors such as water activity and sugar content, the inoculated fungal strains, and the incubation time and temperature. This study focused on a short incubation period and only three different fungal strains.
Aflatoxins, primarily produced by Aspergillus species, remain a major concern for global food safety and public health. Among them, aflatoxin B 1 is notably toxic, associated with hepatocellular carcinoma, immunosuppression, and acute toxicity in both humans and animals. These contaminants frequently affect essential food crops, such as maize, peanuts, and cereals, especially in low-resource regions. Traditional detection methods, although reliable and widely adopted for regulatory purposes, still face challenges in sensitivity and processing time. In contrast, conventional detoxification approaches, such as chemical or physical treatments, can raise concerns regarding efficiency and environmental compatibility. Emerging nanotechnology-based strategies under research aim to address these specific limitations. In this context, nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful and exclusive innovative approach to aflatoxin management, leveraging materials with high surface area, tunable reactivity, and favourable biocompatibility. This review explores the distinct roles of nanomaterials in aflatoxin management, highlighting their contribution to ultra-sensitive detection systems and, separately, their function in detoxification and mitigation mechanisms. In detection, nanosensors based on gold nanoparticles, carbon nanostructures, and aptamer-functionalised platforms enable rapid identification of different molecules at trace levels. In contrast, for detoxification, photocatalytic and adsorptive nanomaterials, such as TiO 2 , ZnO, and graphene oxide exhibit strong capability to degrade or remove these toxins. The integration of these materials into smart packaging systems enables real-time monitoring and reduces contamination risk during storage and distribution. Moreover, the use of green-synthesised nanoparticles provides an eco-friendly pathway toward safer food technologies. Despite significant advancements, several challenges remain. Issues such as nanoparticle stability, industrial scalability, long-term biosafety, and regulatory acceptance must be addressed to facilitate real-world implementation. This review critically assesses recent developments in both detection and detoxification, treated as complementary but independent pillars of aflatoxin control, while outlining future interdisciplinary directions for innovation. Ultimately, nanotechnology holds great potential to reshape aflatoxin risk management and contribute to more resilient and sustainable food systems worldwide.
The exposure of breastfeeding mothers to Aflatoxin B 1 and Ochratoxin A (OTA) via contaminated foods may expose infants to potentially genotoxic and carcinogenic Aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1 ) and OTA via breast milk (BM). We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional substudy nested within a case-control cohort to assess the potential genotoxic and carcinogenic risks of AFM 1 and OTA exposure via BM consumption in six-week-old HIV-exposed-infected (HEI), HIV-exposed-uninfected (HEU) and HIV-unexposed-uninfected (HUU) infants from Harare, Zimbabwe. The AFM 1 and OTA concentrations in BM measured via ELISA were used to determine the median probable daily intake (MPDI) and margin of exposure (MOE) for the toxins. We included 5 HEI, 124 HEU and 133 HUU infants. Among HEI infants, 2/5 (40%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 6.50; range: 6.44-6.55), whereas 0/5 (0%) consumed OTA via BM. Among HEU infants, 26/105 (25%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 7.35; range: 5.96-29.8), whereas 11/124 (9%) consumed OTA (ng/ml) (median: 0.20; range: 0.14-0.65) via BM. Among HUU infants, 38/116 (33%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 7.70; range: 6.07-31.75), whereas 4/133 (3%) consumed OTA (ng/ml) (median: 0.24; range: 0.18-0.83) via BM. BM consumed by the infants contained AFM 1 at levels exceeding 2.5 pg/ml, the European Union limit for the toxin in traded infant foods. The MPDIs of AFM 1 (ng/kg BW per day) in HEI, HEU and HUU infants were 1.02, 1.30 and 1.19, respectively. The MPDIs of OTA (ng/kg BW per day) in HEU and HUU infants were 30.20 and 42.55, respectively. In all infants exposed to AFM 1 and OTA, the MOE was <10,000 indicating exposure at levels that are potentially genotoxic and carcinogenic. The exposure of breastfeeding mothers to mycotoxins should be minimised to protect vulnerable infants.
Maize ( Zea mays L.) a main crop worldwide, is susceptible to fungal contamination specially by Aspergillus flavus which produces aflatoxins (AFs) AFB 1 and AFB 2 . These mycotoxins are carcinogenic and can cause significant economic losses due to contamination in food and feed chains. Climate change, leading to more frequent droughts, exacerbates this issue by potentially increasing AFs contamination. Nanotechnology offers a promising option for controlling fungal pathogens and mycotoxins. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are particularly interesting to for their antifungal properties. This study was aimed to synthesise and characterised ZnO-NPs and to evaluate their effectiveness on reducing the A. flavus growth and AFs accumulation under in vitro (maize based medium) and in situ (irradiated maize grains) assays. ZnO-NPs were synthesised and characterised, showing stability and effective antifungal properties. In vitro , ZnO-NPs significantly reduced A. flavus growth rates by a 40-78% and AFB 1 production by 93.6-100%. This also caused hyphal deformation and unusual bulges besides a decrease in the fungal conidiation. In situ , ZnO-NPs caused reduction in fungal growth rates by ∼40% at 2 g/kg. AFs reduction was observed in a wide range of percentages even at 99%, especially at low water activities. However, some treatments increased AFs production by 2-5-fold, due to probably not homogeneous nanoparticle distribution on grain surface, suggesting potential stress responses by the fungus. Overall, ZnO-NPs demonstrate strong potential for managing aflatoxin contamination in maize, though their application must be carefully controlled to avoid unintended effects. Further field studies and environmental impact assessments are needed to optimise their use.
