Peanuts are highly susceptible to contamination by toxigenic fungi and associated mycotoxins during both preand post-harvest stages. In Ethiopia, data on mycotoxin levels in peanuts remain limited. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and concentrations of mycotoxins in post-harvest peanut samples (N = 54) collected from January to March 2023 from the 2022 harvest season in Babile and Fedis districts, as well as the surrounding areas of Harar town. All samples were analyzed for 23 mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), fumonisins (FB1, FB2, and FB3), ochratoxin A (OTA), and sterigmatocystin (STERIG), amongst others, using LC-MS/MS. About 61% of samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin, with up to six different mycotoxins detected in a single sample. The highest contamination was observed in samples from the Harar area, where nine mycotoxins were detected. Samples from Babile and Fedis were also contaminated with up to seven mycotoxins. Harar samples contained the highest levels of AFB1 (4222 mu g/kg), AFB2 (3497 mu g/kg), and OTA (178 mu g/kg). Babile had the highest concentrations of AFG1 (3136 mu g/kg) and AFB1 (2483 mu g/kg), while Fedis showed the highest AFG2 (106 mu g/kg). Fumonisin levels (FB1-FB3) were low overall (2.2-37.0 mu g/kg). This is the first report confirming the presence of fumonisins, OTA, and STERIG in Ethiopian peanuts. Overall, the findings highlight substantial contamination with multiple mycotoxins, particularly AFs and OTA, posing a significant public health risk. The study underscores the urgent need for comprehensive food safety interventions across Ethiopia's peanut production and supply chain.

DNA adductomics is the study of the whole of DNA adducts in a biological sample and is a valuable asset to exposomics research. To date, a clear view on how to analyze larger sample series is lacking in DNA adductomics, and the preprocessing of untargeted DNA adductomics data is seldom applied. This work aimed to optimize a DNA adductomics data preprocessing workflow (in true untargeted mode). Building upon the xcms R package, we optimized parameters for peak detection, retention time alignment, and peak grouping to reliably detect and integrate putative DNA adduct LC-MS peaks. Next, to ensure reliable downstream data analysis, six sample- and feature-based normalization methods were tested and quantitatively evaluated in two data sets (placental tissue, n = 375, and blood samples, n = 51). As a result, a successful and reproducible procedure for optimization of xcms parameters for DNA adductomics is proposed. Furthermore, evaluation of normalization methods demonstrated the importance and limitations of objective (RSD* and D-ratio) and subjective, i.e., visual (PCA score plot) evaluation. This work supports reproducible and transparent untargeted DNA adductomics data preprocessing to be implemented in large-scale exposomics studies.

ABSTRACT Esophageal cancer (EC) results in high mortality due to difficulty in early diagnosis, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, including the African EC belt typified by high prevalence, early onset, and poor prognosis. While the precise etiological factors remain unknown, emerging data suggest links to the oral microbiota. In this study, we conducted a secondary analysis using V4 16S rRNA sequencing from a cross-sectional study of treatment-naive, newly diagnosed EC patients (N = 103) and healthy controls (N = 108) residing in agricultural regions of Ethiopia. We report that the salivary microbiota in the healthy Ethiopian controls is highly diverse, forming two functionally distinct community clusters differing in diversity, composition, and absolute abundance. Microbiota composition was associated with sex and alcohol consumption, but not age. Comparisons against groups from geographically distinct populations representing Tanzania, Uganda, Venezuela, and the United States (N = 641) showed that cluster 2 resembled other East African populations, while cluster 1 was unique to the Ethiopian cohort. Both EC subtypes, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and esophageal adenocarcinoma, were associated with a loss of microbial diversity and an increased probability of having a cluster 2 microbiota (adjusted OR = 2.9 [95% CI 1.5–5.9]). Classifiers trained to discriminate healthy and EC samples were further validated on two external EC cohorts from China (N = 161). Models trained on the Ethiopian cohort could predict disease status in an external cohort of mid- and late-stage ESCC from China (AUROC = 0.70 ± 0.03 [mean ± SD]), demonstrating the generalization of microbial features of ESCC across populations.IMPORTANCERecent reports in North America and China have correlated oral microbiota composition with esophageal cancer, although the translation of this knowledge into the African esophageal cancer belt is hampered by a lack of data on the oral microbiota of East Africans and limited cross-cohort comparative analyses validating the utility of these biomarkers. We report that the human salivary microbiota is a meaningful biomarker of later-stage esophageal cancer that transcends geography and ethnicity and may provide utility for large-population screening. A lower-diversity and lower-abundance salivary microbiota correlated with esophageal cancer warrants further investigation to understand the role of oral microbes in mediating carcinogenesis.

Although numerous studies have reported the male reproductive toxicity of bisphenol A (BPA) and its substitute bisphenol S (BPS), the impacts of paternal exposure to these chemicals on the male reproductive system of offspring and the underlying molecular mechanism remain inadequately explored. In this study, we investigated male reproductive toxicity in pubertal offspring resulting from paternal exposure to environmentally relevant doses of BPA (0.45 μg/kg body weight [bw]/day) or BPS (0.15 μg/kg bw/day). Our results showed that paternal exposure to BPA or BPS reduced pubertal offspring testosterone levels and impaired testicular histomorphology and development. Concurrently, BPA and BPS decreased the activities of testicular marker enzymes (LDH and SDH), down-regulated the expression of spermatogenesis-related genes (Plzf, Pcna, and Sycp3), and were accompanied by reduced sperm quality and increased malformation rates. Notably, paternal exposure to BPA/BPS suppressed the expression of the key carnitine transporter OCTN2 and disrupted testicular carnitine transport homeostasis in offspring. The consequent reduction in testicular carnitine led to decreased expression of markers involved in mitochondrial β-oxidation (CPT1 and CPT2) and the respiratory chain (ND1, ND2, ND3, CYTB, COX1, and ATP6), resulting in severely impaired energy metabolism. Further investigation revealed that paternal BPA/BPS exposure also inhibited the activities of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px) in offspring testes, leading to substantial accumulation of MDA. Elevated oxidative stress promoted intrinsic apoptotic signaling in offspring testes. This was characterized by the upregulation of pro-apoptotic markers, including increased Cleaved-CASPASE-3/9 levels and a higher BAX/BCL2 ratio. In summary, this study demonstrates that paternal BPA/BPS-induced dysregulation of the testicular carnitine transport system and disruption of carnitine homeostasis contribute to impairments in testicular energy metabolism in offspring. Concurrently, it induces oxidative stress and activates the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, collectively contributing to impaired testicular development and spermatogenesis in pubertal offspring.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a prevalent mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp., represents a persistent threat to global food and feed safety. Two innovative strategies were developed herein for efficient DON detoxification. Coupling the genes encoding the aldo-keto reductase AKR13B2 and the pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent DON dehydrogenase DepA using a flexible linker enabled rational engineering of the bifunctional fusion enzyme BGA (AKR13B2-[GGGGS]2-DepA). This design facilitated proximity-enhanced sequential conversion of DON to 3-keto-DON and the markedly less toxic 3-epi-DON. BGA exhibited significantly enhanced catalytic efficiency, thermal stability, and operational robustness. In parallel, food-grade Kluyveromyces marxianus was engineered for coexpression of codon-optimized DepA and AKR13B2 (termed as KmDepA and KmAKR13B2, respectively), yielding near-complete DON degradation in contaminated wheat grains. KmDepA displayed substantially improved solubility and specific activity relative to its Escherichia coli-expressed counterpart. Collectively, this integrated strategy provides a robust, scalable, and safe method for enzymatic DON remediation, with strong potential for industrial and agricultural applications.

Mycotoxin societies and networks act as essential coordinators, bridging research, capacity building, policy development, and practical risk management across global agri-food chains, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This review provides an integrated analysis of the origins, missions, activities, and verifiable impacts of key mycotoxin societies and networks operating in Africa (e.g., ASM), Latin America (SLAM), Asia (TSM, Vietnam Sub-Society, JSM, ASIAM), Europe (SMR), Morocco (MSM), and internationally (ISM), alongside the influential MYTOX-SOUTH® network. The findings underscore concrete achievements across four impact categories: a) regulatory influences through evidence-based contributions to national and international standards; b) risk assessment inputs supporting bodies like EFSA and JECFA; c) local implementation successes, such as enhanced food control systems, laboratory accreditations, and farmer practices reducing contamination levels; and (d) measurable capacity building via symposia, workshops, fellowships, and training programs reaching thousands of early-career scientists and professionals. These mycotoxin societies (ASIAM, ASM, ISM, JSM, MSM, SLAM, SMR, TSM, and VSM) demonstrate strategic value in translating science into policy and practice, fostering harmonization, and strengthening global food safety. Ultimately, mycotoxin societies play a pivotal role in promoting resilient, equitable food systems worldwide by connecting researchers, policymakers, industry, and stakeholders.

Apples are highly susceptible to fungal infections, particularly by Alternaria species, which can lead to fruit deterioration and mycotoxin contamination during storage. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of untargeted liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) as a control-oriented strategy to detect Alternaria-infected apples under retail and long-term storage conditions. Healthy Red Delicious apples were artificially inoculated with three Alternaria tenuissima strains on the fruit surface or core and incubated at 25 °C or 4 °C. Extracts were analysed by UPLC-HRMS in both positive and negative electrospray ionisation modes, followed by multivariate chemometric analysis. Principal component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis consistently discriminated infected from non-infected apples, independent of strain, infection site, or incubation temperature. Feature selection based on variable importance values significantly improved model robustness and predictive performance. The metabolomic profiles also enabled discrimination according to Alternaria strain, infection site, storage temperature, and selected combinations of these factors. The results demonstrate that LC-HRMS-based untargeted metabolomics could provide a statistically robust framework for detecting Alternaria tenuissima infection in apples under the studied conditions.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a complex, multifactorial disorder mainly linked to lifestyle factors. However, emerging evidence suggests that environmental exposures, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), may also contribute to its development. This study investigated serum POP levels and their associations with MetS and related cardiometabolic outcomes in Belgian adults. The study included 403 adults from the Flemish Gut Flora Project (FGFP), a Belgian population-based cohort. Serum concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured using GC-ECNI/MS, while polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs) were quantified using LC/MS. MetS and its components (central obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, low HDL cholesterol, hypertension, impaired fasting glucose) were defined by the International Diabetes Federation criteria. The overall prevalence of MetS was 16.5 % (n = 23) for males and 8.0% (n = 21) for females. Detection frequencies (DFs) were generally high: 13 of the 21 POPs, including PCBs and OCPs were present in 40% of the samples. In pooled serum extracts, DFs for PCAs were 44% for ΣPCA(C10-C13), 68% for ΣPCA(C14-C17) and 5% for ΣPCA(C18-C20). Multi-pollutant models revealed significant associations between POPs and several MetS indicators stratified by sex. Notably, females exhibited significantly increased odds of elevated blood pressure (OR: 2.29, FDR <0.05). This study provides evidence of ongoing exposure to POPs in Belgium, linking these mixtures to cardiometabolic alterations. These findings emphasize a potential differential susceptibility in females and underscore the need for targeted public health considerations.

Human exposure to currently used pesticides (CUPs) is widespread, with children being especially vulnerable to possible adverse health effects. Assessing exposure and related risks in children is therefore essential. In this study, 6 parent compounds and 9 metabolites of a subset of CUPs were analyzed in 327 urine samples from children (4-12 years) in the ENVIRONAGE cohort, as part of the characterization of their chemical exposome. Among the targeted compounds, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPY), 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) and trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid (trans-DCCA) were detected in > 50 % of samples, with 3-PBA showing the highest median level (0.33 ng/mL, interquartile range (IQR): 0.18-0.61 ng/mL). These metabolites reflect exposure to chlorpyrifos and pyrethroids, while other biomarkers showed low detection frequencies. The low detection frequencies might partly reflect a limited suitability of included biomarkers rather than absence of exposure. TCPY concentrations (median: 0.16 ng/mL, IQR: 0.07-0.27 ng/mL) were lower than previously reported studies, possibly reflecting the ban on chlorpyrifos in the European Union. Questionnaires on demographics, lifestyle, and dietary habits were used to identify possible exposure determinants. Risk assessment was performed by calculating estimated daily intakes (EDIs), risk characterization ratios (RCRs), and hazard indices (HI) applying a worst-case scenario; assuming metabolites were formed due to exposure to the most toxic parent compound. Time spent cycling was positively associated with levels of 3-PBA and trans-DCCA, while sampling season was identified as a significant variable for trans-DCCA, with the highest concentrations in autumn. Juice consumption was positively associated with TCPY concentrations. All risk characterization ratios for single compounds were below 1, while for two children, the HI for combined exposure to pyrethroids exceeded 1. The current study demonstrates that Belgian children are exposed to chlorpyrifos and pyrethroid pesticides, with most exposures falling within ranges considered safe under the assumed conditions.

Cereals are essential staple foods that supply vital nutrients, energy, and dietary fibre to billions of people worldwide. However, their susceptibility to mycotoxin contamination can compromise cereal quality, safety, and trade. Conventional mitigation strategies, such as biological, physical, and chemical treatments, often yield limited success or degrade the nutritional value of cereal-based products. Extrusion cooking is a promising solution for reducing mycotoxins in cereals using high temperatures, pressure, and shear forces to degrade or inactivate mycotoxins while enhancing product properties. The effectiveness of extrusion depends on optimizing key processing parameters, such as temperature, moisture content, screw speed, residence time, and feed composition. Despite the demonstrated potential of extrusion to reduce mycotoxins in cereals, studies that systematically optimize extrusion parameters for effective mitigation remain limited. This review highlights the major mycotoxins contaminating cereals, including aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), and ochratoxins (OTs), along with their toxicities and the key challenges in mitigating contamination in cereals. It further evaluates extrusion as a promising mitigation strategy and emphasizes the importance of optimizing critical extrusion parameters to maximize mycotoxin reduction in cereal-based foods. Additionally, it evaluates the impact of extrusion on reducing mycotoxin toxicity in humans and animals. It critically appraises the advantages and limitations of extrusion as a mitigation strategy, alongside recent technological advances for mycotoxin reduction in cereal-based products. Overall, optimizing extrusion processes presents a scalable, sustainable, and practical approach to improving food safety, public health, and global food security.

European human biomonitoring (HBM) studies have increasingly adopted multi-mycotoxin approaches to capture complex exposure scenarios encountered in real-life diets. This nation-wide study provides the characterization, for the first time, of the mycotoxin profile of 295 urine samples collected from the Portuguese population in the continent and islands (archipelagos of Madeira and Azores), using an optimized and validated LC-MS/MS method for the characterization of 39 mycotoxins/metabolites. Nearly all study participants (99.3%) were exposed to at least one mycotoxin, with around half (54.2%) being co-exposed to only 2 detectable mycotoxins. Free-deoxynivalenol (free-DON, 84.7%) and tenuazonic acid (TeA, 95.6%) were the most prevalent mycotoxins. Citrinin (CIT, 11.5%), α-zearalenone (α-ZEL, 10.5%) and ochratoxin A (OTA, 9.5%) showed detection rates near 10%. Median concentrations (P50) for the two predominant mycotoxins were 0.79 μg/L (0.72 μg/g creatinine) for free-DON and 2.45 μg/L (2.08 μg/g creatinine) for TeA, with maximum values of 11.77 μg/L (10.06 μg/g creatinine) and 90.91 μg/L (114.15 μg/g creatinine), respectively. Sociodemographic patterns showed lower exposure in the Centre region and higher free-DON exposure in southern Portugal and the archipelagos. TeA exposure differed significantly by region and was lowest in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and Algarve compared to the Center reference region. Low educational levels and spring sampling correlated with higher exposure for both toxins, but only education levels showed statistical significance in the linear regression analyses. For both TeA and free-DON, no differences in exposure were observed by sex, occupational status, or degree of urbanization. Overall, these findings underscore the importance of continuous surveillance, particularly under the current climate change scenario, and highlight the relevance of integrating human biomonitoring into national food safety and public health strategies.

Mycotoxins are widely consumed food contaminants. Mechanistic studies support potential carcinogenic effects of mycotoxins in the human intestine, yet no studies have investigated these associations in population-based settings. This study aimed to investigate associations between dietary mycotoxin exposures and colorectal cancer risk. Dietary questionnaire data from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) were combined with mycotoxin food occurrence data from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Associations between mycotoxin exposures and colorectal cancer (CRC) risk and its anatomical sub-sites were evaluated in multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models to compute hazard ratios (HR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI), accounting for potential confounders. Food groups that explained the greatest variation in mycotoxin intakes were cereal-based products, vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and fruits. For individual mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) was positively associated with CRC risk (HR top vs. bottom tertiles [T3vsT1] = 1.14; 1.04–1.24), while patulin (PAT) was positively associated with rectal cancer risk only (HRT3vsT1 = 1.18; 1.05–1.32). Sensitivity analyses indicated differential results for men versus women with significant positive associations for DON and CRC risk found only in men. In conclusion, dietary mycotoxin exposures may be related to higher CRC risk. Further investigation in independent cohorts and through mechanistic studies is warranted.

Mycotoxin exposure is a major public health concern in Africa due to food insecurity that compromises food safety. Infants and young children are highly vulnerable due to immature immunity and higher food intake per body weight. However, data on mycotoxin exposure in Africa remain limited. This study investigated mycotoxin exposure in Nigerian infant-mother pairs and toddlers using biological samples (breast milk, infant/toddler urine) collected from three agro-ecological zones. Overall, 75.6% of all the samples tested positive for at least one mycotoxin. Zearalenone, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, and citrinin were most prevalent across all sample types, with mean levels (ng/mL) of 4.1, 1.1, 1.2, and 2.0 in breast milk; 0.83, 0.78, 0.11, and 0.79 in infant urine; and 0.99, 1.0, 0.1, and 1.9 in toddler urine, respectively. No significant associations were found between mycotoxin contamination in breast milk and infant urine or between diet patterns across the regions and mycotoxin levels. Mycotoxin exposure assessment of infants/toddlers using the probable daily intake approach based on urinary biomarkers revealed high exposure to mycotoxins especially ZEN, OTA, and AFM1. The results suggest widespread exposure among the studied population and highlight the need for further research and interventions to reduce mycotoxin exposure, especially in vulnerable populations.

Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009–2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant–feed–animal–human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental exposures. While the roles of pesticides and heavy metals in PD have been widely studied, mycotoxins – secondary fungal metabolites commonly found in contaminated food – remain relatively understudied, despite experimental evidence of their neurotoxic potential. This study aimed to explore the role of mycotoxin exposure and PD by quantifying plasma mycotoxin levels and evaluating dietary patterns in 26 individuals with PD compared to 26 age- and gender-matched healthy controls. Plasma samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxin content using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Dietary exposure was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to examine potential correlations between dietary habits and mycotoxin presence. Mycotoxins, including citrinin (CIT), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatin B (EnnB), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were quantified in plasma samples, with no significant differences in concentration levels or detection frequency between PD patients and controls. However, significant correlations were found between specific foods and mycotoxin levels (e.g. CIT with raisin bread, OTA with milk bread/soy, EnnB with rye bread/tortilla/whole wheat pasta, CPA with whole wheat pasta/tortilla, and TeA with white bread). While overall dietary patterns were similar, patients consumed more cake (Z = −2.406, ) and raisins (Z = −3.409, ), but less muesli (Z = −2.468, ) than controls. Although this proof-of-concept study found no significant association between mycotoxin exposure and PD status, the detection of multiple mycotoxins in both groups and their correlation with dietary patterns suggest a need for further investigation. Future research involving larger cohorts and longitudinal designs is warranted to elucidate the potential role of chronic dietary mycotoxin exposure in PD pathogenesis.

Rice is a major dietary staple food across Asia, including Thailand, and is susceptible to fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination. Because rice is consumed daily, even low-level contamination may have public-health implications. This study aimed to identify fungal diversity on unpolished and polished rice samples and to analyse the occurrence of mycotoxins in retail rice from Thailand. To this end, 50 retail rice samples (25 polished and 25 unpolished) were collected from markets across various districts of Bangkok, Thailand. Using the blotter method, 12.6% of rice proved to be contaminated by fungi with a slightly higher contamination rate observed in unpolished rice than in polished rice (13.28% and 11.92%, respectively). Morphological and molecular examination using multi-locus sequencing revealed various taxa belonging to Aspergillus, Neocosmospora (Fusarium solani species complex) and Penicillium/Talaromyces. Chemical analysis by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry detected beauvericin (BEA; n = 2) and zearalenone (ZEN; n = 2) only in unpolished rice, with concentrations up to 1.77 μg/kg and 65.57 μg/kg, respectively. None of the samples exceeded the acceptable ZEN threshold set by the Thai Food and Drug Administration (100 μg/kg). In conclusion, the results of this study confirmed that unpolished is prone to fungal contamination originating from environmental, as well as handling during harvesting, sorting and packaging. The occurrence of mycotoxin was limited to a small percentage of unpolished rice samples. No regulated carcinogenic mycotoxins such as AFs, OTA, or FB1 were found. Using validated LC–MS/MS methods, only ZEN and BEA were detected at low levels in unpolished rice, and no mycotoxins above the LOQ were found in polished rice. The results show low contamination in the rice samples from Bangkok retail markets. However, further studies are needed to confirm these findings at a broader level. The multi-toxin analytical method described enables routine, validated monitoring of rice from various harvests, helping to support food safety objectives.

Mycotoxins are widespread dietary contaminants whose health impacts are expected to intensify under climate change. Although their mechanisms of toxicity remain incompletely understood, epigenetic dysregulation has been increasingly implicated. Here, mass spectrometry-based multi-omics was used to profile histone post-translational modifications and proteome dynamics in HepG2 cells exposed to seven mycotoxin conditions. Time-resolved analyses identified tenuazonic acid as the dominant cellular disruptor, inducing alterations in H3K27 and H1 variants, and revealing a previously unrecognized oxidative modification of the H1.0 N-terminal methionine (H1.0N-term0AcM0Ox) that retains the protein's N-terminal acetylation. An Alternaria toxin mixture induced similar H1 responses, largely driven by tenuazonic acid, while deoxynivalenol produced convergent chromatin and proteomic alterations. Proteomic remodeling was characterized by increased protein translation, reduced mitochondrial complex IV expression, and impaired cholesterol biosynthesis, whereas sterigmatocystin activated DNA replication and repair pathways. Together, these findings demonstrate that mycotoxins disrupt chromatin organization, protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism, providing toxicological insight into hepatocellular dysfunction. These findings warrant further validation and mechanistic investigation in future hypothesis-driven studies of mycotoxin exposure.

The intestinal microbiome is essential for gastrointestinal and overall health, yet its response to air pollution in children remains underexplored. In a study involving 412 young children from the ENVIRONAGE cohort, stool samples were analysed via Illumina Miseq sequencing to assess microbiome alpha diversity (observed richness, species evenness, and Shannon diversity) and composition. Exposure to previous year particulate air pollution (black carbon, PM2.5, coarse PM, and PM10) was modeled using high-resolution spatial-temporal interpolation models. Multiple linear regression models were adjusted for a priori selected covariables and stratified by sex. Furthermore, we performed a differential relative abundance analysis at family and genus level, while accounting for the same covariables. Statistically significant effect modification by sex was apparent for several intestinal alpha diversity indices and air pollutants. In boys, we observed negative associations between particulate air pollution exposure and intestinal microbiome richness (estimates ranging from -5.55 to -9.06 per interquartile range (IQR) increase in particulate air pollution exposure) and Shannon diversity (estimates ranging from -0.058 to -0.095 per IQR increase). Differently, in girls non-significant positive associations were observed with species evenness (estimates ranging from 0.019 to 0.020 per IQR increase) and Shannon diversity (estimate 0.065 per IQR increase in black carbon). After multiple testing correction, we reported several bacterial families and genera (Streptococcaceae, Clostridiales Incertae Sedis XIII, Coriobacteriaceae, Streptococcus, and Paraprevotella) to be oppositely associated with particulate air pollution exposure in boys and girls. Our findings show a sex-dependent association between particulate air pollution exposure and intestinal microbiome composition, highlighting boys as potentially more vulnerable to diversity loss associated with childhood exposure to particulate pollution.

Mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Cyclopiazonic Acid (CPA) pose serious health risks, yet their combined toxicity remains poorly understood. This study examined, for the first time, the individual and joint effects of AFB1 and CPA on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos, focusing on developmental and cardiac outcomes. Embryos were exposed from 6 h to 4 days post-fertilization to varying concentrations of each toxin and their mixtures. AFB1 caused fin fold wrinkling, underdeveloped pectoral fins, body curvature, growth retardation, and high lethality at elevated doses. CPA induced dose-dependent abnormalities, including cerebral hemorrhage, pericardial edema, fin and body deformities, and increased mortality. Combined exposure produced severe malformations encompassing most defects from either toxin alone, with markedly higher mortality, indicating synergistic toxicity. Cardiac assessments showed that CPA alone mainly reduced heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output, while AFB1 alone showed no significant effects on cardiac function. Co-exposure, however, further suppressed cardiac function, revealing enhanced cardiotoxicity. These results highlight the amplified risks of co-exposure to CPA and AFB1 and emphasize the need to account for multi-mycotoxin interactions in food safety assessments. The study also reinforces the value of zebrafish embryos as an in vivo model for mycotoxin toxicity.