Mucus as an anatomical entity has been unjustly overlooked in bioscience, despite being recognised as an influential microenvironment for cells or hosts with disease-causing properties. In addition to his description of cell function, Rudolf Virchow considered the effect of mucus, to which we owe today’s thinking on cell biology. He coined the term ‘Schleimgewebe’. These spaces of mucus, formed by ‘connective tissue’ (wrongly ‘fasciae’, formerly described as ‘tela’), can be revealed without cells by Ott’s method. The fact that correct cells redevelop locally through blood perfusion in determined spaces is further evidence of local effectiveness of Schleimgewebe. As further evidence for a mucus topology, we can conclude that topological thinking is clinically very successful in cancer treatment.
The ulnar artery (UA) is one of the two major arteries of the forearm. Compared to the radial artery, the UA is rarely used in coronary artery bypass (CABG) surgery, partially due to misconceptions regarding its anatomy. This narrative literature review aimed to evaluate current understanding of UA anatomy, to evaluate its feasibility as a conduit for CABG. Following a systematic search, 86 papers were included that described the gross and microscopic anatomy of the UA or its major branches using a range of techniques in living people and cadaveric specimens. Of the 60 studies that described UA gross anatomy, two measured its mean length (23 cm, approximately 15 cm of which is harvestable). Luminal diameter (32 studies) ranged from 1.48–5.71 mm proximal to 2.20–3.58 mm at or distal to the wrist; these findings demonstrate the UA is of similar size to other common conduits. Descriptions of the arrangement of the superficial palmar arch (SPA) (25 studies) lacked consistency; however, more than half of SPAs were formed by the UA and a branch of the radial artery (55.6%, 1350/2430), indicating safe UA harvest is feasible in some people. Microscopically (3 studies), the UA is predominantly muscular, with a mean±SD wall thickness of between 0.10±0.08 mm and 0.56±0.16 mm. The diameter of the UA is well documented, but high-quality studies of its length, and microscopic anatomy (e.g., tunica media and internal elastic lamina composition) and behaviour are required to better understand its feasibility as a CABG conduit.
Objectives: Biomechanical models commonly describe the piriformis muscle as reversing function from a hip external rotator to an internal rotator with increasing hip flexion. These models often assume a uniform distal tendon attachment, despite growing anatomical evidence of variability. Femoral torsion is a clinically measurable parameter that may influence piriformis tendon orientation and function. Methods: The piriformis muscle was examined in 63 femora from 38 embalmed donor bodies. The position of the piriformis distal tendon attachment on the superior surface of the greater trochanter was measured relative to its midpoint and classified as anterior or posterior. Femoral angle of torsion was measured using direct anatomical methods with a goniometer. The relationship between femoral torsion and piriformis tendon position was analyzed using Pearson’s correlation. Results: Across the full sample, no significant relationship was identified between femoral torsion and piriformis tendon position (r=0.13, p=0.31). Right femora demonstrated no meaningful association, whereas left femora showed a statistically significant moderate positive correlation, with increasing femoral torsion associated with a more posterior tendon position (r=0.38, p=0.04). No consistent or statistically significant patterns were observed when analyses were stratified by sex. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that the relationship between femoral torsion and piriformis tendon position is inconsistent and not bilaterally uniform. When considered alongside documented variability in piriformis distal attachment, these results call into question simplified biomechanical models that assume a predictable reversal of piriformis function with hip flexion and support a more cautious interpretation of piriformis biomechanics.
Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) on body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Methods: This study was conducted prospectively in the Urology Clinic between May 1, 2015, and April 20, 2017. The BPH group included 310 patients aged 45–75 years diagnosed with BPH, without chronic disease and without surgery, while the control group included 270 patients in the same age range with urological diagnoses that did not affect BIA values. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels for both groups were retrieved from medical records. Anthropometric measurements of body composition between the two groups were performed using the BIA-101 device (Akern Bioresearch Srl, Pontassieve, Florence, Italy). Data were analyzed between the two groups using Spearman’s correlation, independent samples t-test, Mann-Whitney U test, and logistic regression tests in IBM SPSS V22 software. Results: Body mass index (BMI), fat-free mass (FFM), body cell mass (BCM), muscle mass (MM), intracellular water (ICW), fat-free mass index (FFMI), and body cell mass index (BCM) were lower and statistically significant in the BPH group. Conversely, as expected, the PSA value was higher and statistically significant in the BPH group compared to the control group (p<0.001). In the age-adjusted logistic regression analysis, FFM was lower and statistically significant in the BPH group (p=0.038). Conclusion: The BIA method is a reliable, inexpensive, and easily applicable method that can be used to detect changes in body components of common diseases such as BPH.
The renal arteries typically originate from the abdominal aorta at the level of the L1–L2 vertebrae and divide into five segmental arteries near the renal hilum. In this report, we describe a rare anatomical variation in which the inferior segmental artery of the kidney arises independently from the abdominal aorta and gives rise to an atypical right testicular artery. We further discuss the clinical and surgical implications of this variation. This case highlights the critical importance of recognizing vascular anatomical variations in order to prevent iatrogenic complications during retroperitoneal invasive procedures. In the present case, both total nephrectomy and partial nephrectomy involving the inferior segment of the right kidney may result in ischemic injury to the right testis due to its anomalous arterial supply.
Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the terminological scope and pedagogical strategy of Fazıl Noyan’s Anatomy Atlas Volume I by examining the visual materials and anatomical terminology of the locomotor system, and to evaluate its alignment with contemporary international standards and widely used reference atlasesç Methods: A descriptive and comparative analysis was conducted on all osteology, arthrology, and myology illustrations in Volume I of the atlas. Labeled anatomical terms were recorded, duplicate entries were removed to identify unique terms, and Latin terminology was compared with the Terminologia Anatomica 2019 (TA2). Quantitative parameters included the number of illustrations, label density per figure, and system-based distribution of unique terms. Qualitative comparisons were made with Netter and Sobotta atlases. Results: A total of 276 illustrations were analyzed, yielding 1,266 unique anatomical terms with 3,208 total occurrences. More than 95% of terms were fully consistent with TA2, with remaining discrepancies largely attributable to minor orthographic variations. Osteology and arthrology demonstrated comparable proportional representation within TA2, whereas myology showed lower coverage, reflecting the broader terminological scope of TA2 in this system. Conclusion: Fazıl Noyan’s Anatomy Atlas demonstrates a pedagogically selective yet terminologically robust approach, prioritizing visually representable core structures. The atlas occupies an intermediate position between clinically oriented and morphologically detailed reference atlases and represents a valuable scientific and educational heritage compatible with contemporary anatomical standards.
Objectives: The palmaris longus (PLM) muscle is a superficial forearm muscle that may be congenitally absent, with prevalence varying among populations. This study aimed to investigate the association between PLM agenesis, sex, and the digit ratio (2D:4D) using radiological imaging methods. Methods: Wrist magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations of 264 individuals (115 males and 149 females) performed at Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiology between 2020 and 2024 were evaluated retrospectively to assess the presence or absence of the PLM. The 2D:4D digit ratio was assessed using hand radiographs. Descriptive statistics were calculated. An independent samples t-test and Pearson’s chi-square test were applied, with the significance level set at p≤0.05. Results: PLM was present in 83.7% and absent in 16.3% of cases. PLM was absent in 13.9% of males and 18.1% of females, with no statistically significant sex difference (p=0.359). Right and left sided absence rates were 17.4% and 15.0%, respectively, showing no significant side-related difference (p=0.605). PLM was absent in 16.1% of individuals with a 2D>4D ratio and in 16.5% of those with a 4D>2D ratio (p=0.928). No significant association was found between PLM presence and the 2D:4D ratio. Conclusion: PLM agenesis is a relatively uncommon anatomical finding. The absence rate observed in this study and the lack of significant differences between sexes or sides are consistent with previous imaging-based studies. No significant association was identified between PLM presence or absence and the 2D:4D digit ratio.
Objectives: This study aimed to develop a three-dimensional (3D) printed mandible model based on real bone scanning data, enhanced by segmentation of the mandibular canal from computed tomography (CT) images and the digital incorporation of the inferior alveolar nerve. The primary objective was to create an accessible and reusable educational tool that facilitates students’ understanding of the internal anatomy of the mandible without reliance on cadaveric material. Methods: An adult human mandible was scanned using CT with 0.625 mm slice thickness. The CT data were imported into 3D Slicer (version 5.10.0), where the mandible and the mandibular canal was segmented. The resulting 3D models were refined in Blender software, and the inferior alveolar nerve was digitally added and integrated into the canal before 3D printing. The final mesh was printed at 1:1 scale using white Hyper PLA filament on a Bambu Lab X1E printer, and the canal structures and alveolar nerve were highlighted with acrylic paint. Results: The model preserved fine surface details and showed no visible deformation or missing parts. The printed model required only 34 g of filament (~0.98 USD) and two hours to produce. The added canal and inferior alveolar nerve were clearly visible and could be related to external landmarks, improving the interpretability of the mandible’s internal anatomy. Conclusion: This simple and low-cost workflow produced an anatomically accurate and visually clear mandible model. The model may support anatomy education, especially in settings where access to real bone or cadaveric specimens is limited.
Objectives: The morphology and locations of the infraorbital and supraorbital retaining ligaments in adult facial cadavers and their distances to the determined landmarks were determined in this research. Methods: The study was conducted on 15 fresh frozen and 13 formaldehyde fixed cadaver heads. Superior orbicular retaining ligament (SORL), inferior orbital retaining ligament (IORL), lateral thickening (LT), zygomatic ligament (ZR) and teartrough (TTh) ligament to the midsagittal line, rima orbitalis and zygomatic peak were measured with an electronic caliper. Results: The mean distance between SORL and TTh to the zygomatic vertex between the right and left faces of cadavers showed statistically significant differences (p≤0.05). The distance between IORL and midsagittal line point between the right and left faces of cadavers was greater on the left face than on the right face. On the left face, the distance between LT and rima orbitalis was greater in fresh cadavers (p≤0.05). On the right face, the distance between ZL and zygomatic vertex was greater in fresh cadavers. On the left face, the distance between IOR, LT, ZL and TTh and zygomatic vertex was found to differ between fresh and fixed cadavers (p≤0.05). Distance between the IORL and the midsagittal line point was greater in the fixed cadavers on the right side (p≤0.05). Conclusion: The fact that this study has not been conducted before will be a source for similar studies to be conducted in the future.
Objectives: Anatomy remains a cornerstone of medical education, and emerging technologies are increasingly employed to enhance students’ understanding of complex spatial relationships. This study developed and implemented a case-based anatomy online module utilizing Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) of body donors and three-dimensional (3D) models to foster student engagement and promote hypothesis-driven learning. Methods: Students from the USA (n=40) and Türkiye (n=16) participated in virtual classrooms using distance education tools. Each case-based module included: Subject, Medical History, and Physical Exam, followed by Radiology and Pathology reports. Students generated diagnostic hypotheses during the virtual session, discussed findings in small groups, and accessed 3D segmented, photogrammetric, illustrative anatomical models and web-based MRIs. Results: Analysis of the results revealed significant differences in student responses between the JABSOM and Türkiye cohorts regarding the online learning modules. The Türkiye cohort consistently rated the modules more favorably across several key areas. Conclusion: Despite the differences, both cohorts expressed overall satisfaction with this online learning approach, indicating that the method was well-received across cultural and institutional contexts. This pilot study demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of integrating MRIs and 3D models into case-based anatomy instruction across international cohorts. The workflow offers a replicable model for future anatomy education, bridging traditional teaching methods with cutting-edge teaching tools.
Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of idiopathic scoliosis among adolescent population and their magnitude of ailment on Walter Reed Visual Assessment Scale (WRVAS). Methods: This cross-sectional study included 119 adolescent individuals of both genders from 10−19 years of age. The prevalence, degree of back pain and disease severity were assessed by using self-structured questionnaire, Visual Analogue Scale and WRVAS. Data were analyzed using SPSS 23 and Pearson Chi-square test. Results: A total of 190 participants were enrolled, with a female predominance (61.6%). The mean age was 14.55±2.38 years, height 1.59±0.19 m, and weight 50.62±10.19 kg. The highest mean clinical parameter was lateral flexion (30.98°). Among 190, 50% reported spinal abnormality. A significant association (p=0.003) was found between scoliosis severity and awareness of spinal deformity. Conclusion: This study identifies a considerable prevalence of scoliosis among adolescent population. The study highlights that early detection and combining clinical data with patient-reported outcomes can improve scoliosis diagnosis and treatment in resource-limited adolescent populations.
Cadaveric dissection provides a unique setting for medical students to develop spatial understanding, empathy, and professional respect for the human body. In Türkiye, however, the sustainability of this practice is challenged by persistent shortages and fragmented governance. This paper presents a national overview of the legislative, institutional, and sociocultural barriers affecting body procurement for medical education and research. It examines the three principal cadaver sources, voluntary donation, unclaimed bodies, and imported cadavers, within the existing legal and regulatory context. Legal ambiguities, overlapping authorities, and missing implementing regulations have produced inconsistent practices across faculties. Social factors, including limited family involvement, institutional reluctance, and religious hesitation, further constrain donation rates despite official religious endorsement. Addressing these challenges requires harmonized legislation, transparent institutional procedures, family-inclusive consent models, and active public engagement. A coherent national system would ensure equitable access to cadaveric resources while reinforcing anatomy’s educational and ethical foundations. Beyond logistics, sustainable body procurement must integrate respect, gratitude, and social trust, transforming donation from an administrative act into a shared moral commitment that upholds scientific progress and human dignity.
he nineteenth century marked a critical juncture in the modernization of medicine across the Middle East, as traditional frameworks gave way to European-inspired scientific and pedagogical models. In Iran, this transformation was crystallized through the establishment of Dār al-Funūn in 1851 under Mirza Taqi Khan Amīrkabīr, which introduced structured higher education in medicine and the basic sciences. European-trained physicians such as Jacob Edward Polak played a pivotal role by authoring the first modern Persian anatomy textbook and performing Iran’s first official dissection, thereby institutionalizing modern anatomy teaching. However, the modernization of Iranian medicine was not solely a European import but also part of a wider regional intellectual exchange. Central to this process was the Ottoman physician Şanizade Mehmed Ataullah Efendi, whose Mir’āt al-Abdān fī Tashrīḥ A’zā’ al-Insān (1820) was one of the earliest printed modern medical textbook in the Islamic world. Characterized by three-dimensional anatomical illustrations adapted from leading European sources, Şanizade’s work bridged Islamic medical traditions with modern European anatomical science. Its Persian translation, Anwār al-Nāṣiriyyah (1855), though not formally adopted at Dār al-Funūn, illustrates how Ottoman scholarship directly informed Iranian medical education and royal patronage. This study situates the development of modern medicine in Iran within a broader transregional context, emphasizing the role of Ottoman contributions alongside European influences. It argues that Şanizade’s work provided an essential intermediary step in shaping Iranian anatomy education and exemplifies the circulation of medical knowledge across cultural and linguistic boundaries. Ultimately, the modernization of Iranian medicine emerged from interconnected intellectual networks spanning Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Iran.
Renal arteries typically arise from the abdominal aorta at the level of L1–L2 and supply the kidneys through a single hilar entry. However, multiple variations exist, including accessory, supernumerary, and polar arteries. Such variations are not rare and carry important implications for renal transplantation, vascular surgery, urology, and interventional radiology. We report and discuss a case of double accessory right renal artery identified during cadaveric dissection, highlighting embryological origins, clinical significance, and correlations with existing literature.
Objectives: The rupture of tendinous cords (TC), affects the proper functioning of the atrioventricular (AV) valves and requires replacement by the prosthetic chordae. The morphology and ultrastructure of TC are vital to design prosthesis and to prevent the treatment failure. Methods: The databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, Science direct and Scopus were searched till June 2024. The keywords used were TC, chordae, TC anatomy, TC morphology, TC morphometry, TC histology, TC ultrastructure, TC blood supply, TC development, TC embryology, TC biomechanical properties, strut chordae, false chordae, basal TC, and subvalvular apparatus. Out of 2545 articles collected, 43 were finally included. Results: Majority of human studies were on the hearts from formalin-embalmed cadavers. There were more number of studies (28 studies) examining TC of left ventricle, than that of the right (8 studies). The number of chordae from anterior papillary muscle were greater in number than that from the posterior muscle in both the ventricles. In the left ventricle, anterior papillary muscle chordae were longer and broader. Maximum chordae inserted on the rough zone of mitral and tricuspid valves. Human chordae were structurally more rigid than the animal chordae. The arrangement of collagen bundles inside TC was orthogonal in human, but random and irregular in animal tissues. Conclusion: This review outlines the details on the morphology, ultrastructure, and biomechanical properties of TC which would aid formulate appropriate reparative procedures to prevent postoperative complications and recurrence.
Objectives: This study aims to present a cadaver-based dissection model for the pterional approach, which is widely used in skull base surgery, as a practical tool for educational purposes in accessing the sella turcica. Methods: A pterional approach was performed on five cadavers fixed with 10% formalin using an extended craniotomy. The anatomical layers from the skin incision to the sella turcica were dissected step by step, and key neurovascular structures were identified. Results: The model successfully demonstrated critical neurovascular relationships, enabling trainees to visualize the optic nerve, internal carotid artery, anterior clinoid process, and parasellar structures. Participants (n=10 neurosurgery assistants) showed significant improvement in anatomical knowledge (pre-test: 84±11.7 vs. post-test: 96±5.16, p<0.05, Wilcoxon test) and procedural efficiency. The three-dimensional exposure facilitated skill acquisition in bone drilling, dural retraction, and vessel preservation. Conclusion: The presented model offers an effective and reproducible tool for teaching the anatomical details of the pterional approach. Future studies are recommended to expand the model with multiple cadavers and to assess its educational outcomes quantitatively.
Objectives: Variations and displacements in the attachment sites of the fibularis brevis tendon (FBT) are clinically significant, particularly due to the mechanical forces they exert on the fifth metatarsal bone and their potential role in fracture mechanisms involving this structure. This study aimed to investigate the anatomical characteristics of the fibularis brevis tendon attachment sites, its possible intertendinous connections with neighboring muscles, and its potential influence on fracture patterns at its bony insertion. Methods: A total of 27 embalmed lower extremities (15 males, 12 females; mean age: 69.48±14.39 years) from the Anatomy Department of Mersin University were dissected. The FBT was classified based on its attachments to surrounding tendons and bones. Results: The FBT was observed to attach to the medial cuneiform, the fifth metatarsal bone, and the proximal phalanx in various combinations. Specimens showing a low-lying muscle belly (n=2) were excluded from the main classification. Based on the attachment patterns, a single tendon slip was found in 52% of cases (n=13), while multiple tendon slips were observed in 48% (n=12) of specimens, two slips in 24% (n=6), three slips in 16% (n=4), and four slips in 8% (n=2). Conclusion: Knowledge of the anatomical variations in the attachment patterns of the FBT can provide valuable insights into the extent and localization of fractures at the tendon’s insertion site. Understanding these variations may also assist in surgical planning and interventions involving the FBT or the lateral aspect of the forefoot, particularly in cases of dislocation or trauma.
The jugular foramen (JF) is a passage formed at the skull base between the petrosal part of the temporal bone and the occipital bone. This passage is important because it contains neurovascular structures such as cranial nerves IX, X, and XI, internal jugular vein and ascending pharyngeal artery. In this passage, the dura mater forms dural septums that surround, protect and separate the structures. Dural septa can separate structures individually as well as by grouping them with different variations. In this case, a dural septum separating the cranial nerve IX from the cranial nerves X and XI was found in the JF during routine head dissection of a 74-year-old male cadaver. In surgical procedures to be planned in this region, it will be useful for clinicians to know the variations of the septum due to its interaction with other anatomical structures.
