Small volcanic islands are characterised by high hazard exposure and structural vulnerability, conditions that may increase psychological risks for young children. Although disaster preparedness has received increasing attention in early childhood education (ECE), psychological preparedness in volcanic small-island settings remains underexplored. This mixed-methods study examined psychological preparedness among ECE stakeholders on Ternate Island, Indonesia, using survey data from 127 participants and six focus group discussions within the tripusat pendidikan framework of family, school and community. Participants demonstrated moderate to high levels of psychological preparedness across stakeholder groups. Within-individual factors (WIF) showed the highest mean score (M = 22.94, s.d. = 5.69), followed by individual-institutional factors (IIF) (M = 6.46, s.d.= 1.94) and between-individual factors (BIF) (M = 1.89, s.d. = 1.07). No significant differences were found among teachers, parents and community members (p 0.05). Qualitative findings revealed culturally embedded coping resources, including self-efficacy, religious meaning-making and collective coping, alongside limited eruption-specific knowledge, weak emotional regulation strategies and inconsistent communication across relational and institutional levels. Integrated findings indicate an ecological asymmetry in preparedness, whereby strong individual resilience coexists with weaker relational and institutional coordination. Psychological preparedness appears to depend more on cultural coping systems and shared community experiences than on formal disaster governance. Contribution: These findings highlight the need to strengthen coordination across the tripusat pendidikan ecosystem to foster sustainable and child-centred psychological preparedness in volcanic small-island communities.
This article addresses the issue of disaster resilience and mitigation in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The province is frequently hit by earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and liquefactions due to its location along the Palu-Koro fault line within the Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire region. Amidst these challenging geographic conditions, the predecessors of local communities in Central Sulawesi have developed a unique system of collective memory to deal with disasters through centuries of life experience. This article examines how local communities in Central Sulawesi preserve and transmit disaster-related memories across generations as disaster resilience and mitigation strategies. It mainly aims to investigate the community’s collective memory regarding disaster mitigation through the traditional cultures of the local communities in Indonesia. A particular focus has been on the province of Central Sulawesi. The research findings indicate that collective memory in the province should have played a crucial role in community preparedness and adaptation, particularly for contemporary disaster risk and disaster resilience strategies. The local toponymy can warn people to avoid geographically and environmentally dangerous areas. Crucially, traditional stilt houses, adapted from past disasters, are believed to be able to survive disasters such as floods, earthquakes and tsunamis. Moreover, oral narratives such as folklore and Kayori (poetry) may serve as an early warning system for the dangers of engaging in activities that go against nature. Contribution: The collected memories, unfortunately, have not been well acknowledged and regenerated. Evidence from the field research revealed that many of the disaster-related traditional cultures have been forgotten and neglected. This phenomenon is caused by modernisation, urbanisation and degradation of local language skills.
Indonesia's rapid industrialisation and high exposure to destructive geohazards (earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides) create an escalating and under-addressed risk of natural hazards triggering technological accidents (NATECH) and systemic industrial failures. This convergence necessitates a robust governance framework, yet current national policies remain fragmented and reactive, lacking explicit provisions for NATECH risk integration. This study delivers an integrated evidence base to diagnose critical gaps in Indonesia's NATECH governance. Using a mixed-method approach, combining a bibliometric review of 47 publications (2007-2025), geospatial mapping and regulatory assessment, the findings reveal minimal research attention, weak cross-sectoral coordination and a policy vacuum within key disaster and environmental regulations. Specifically, bibliometric mapping using VOSviewer is employed to identify research trends and knowledge gaps, while a bibliometric literature review guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework ensures transparency and reproducibility in the article selection process. Geospatial analysis further confirms that numerous special economic zone (SEZ) facilities are critically located within high-risk seismic and tsunami zones. We argue that the systemic lack of NATECH mainstreaming necessitates fundamental regulatory reform. We propose a geohazard-based NATECH preparedness policy framework structured around three pillars: (1) establishing a national NATECH database and detailed risk mapping; (2) mandating standardised industrial preparedness schemes based on global best practices; and (3) enacting binding regulatory mechanisms through the harmonisation of laws across key sectors. Contribution:This framework provides a crucial roadmap for enhancing industrial resilience and reducing cascading risk in one of the world's most geologically active regions.
This article presents findings from a longitudinal study on decentralisation in disaster management. The 2015 regional disasters exposed a fundamental incapacity in local crisis management, compelling the central government to reassume control of a system that had been formally decentralised since 2007. When fires recurred in 2019, the regional government had developed partial institutional responses, yet remained unable to fully initiate an independent crisis response, revealing that decentralisation had transferred authority without transferring capability. This study applies Teece’s dynamic capabilities framework, operationalised through the pillars of sensing, seizing, and transforming, to explain why this gap persists. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with key actors during the crisis and post-disaster periods, triangulated with official government archives and local media documentation. The findings offer three theoretical contributions that extend Teece’s framework for public-sector applications. Firstly, a learning phase is identified as a necessary precondition for dynamic capabilities to form in organisationally immature, decentralised systems. Secondly, an asymmetric-substitutional pattern is observed, in which macro-level policy advances consistently outpace operational capacity at the field level. Thirdly, the study introduces networked dynamic capability. Contribution: This study describes the process or evolution that resulted in public organisations specifically disaster management, using a decentralised system. Disaster decentralisation cannot occur immediately if the public organisation is not prepared, and transformation only occurs after a crisis occurs.
Dams play a vital role in supporting agricultural productivity, water supply and flood control in Indonesia. However, their structural failure poses serious threats to human safety and regional development. This study integrates hydrological and hydraulic modelling as part of a comprehensive disaster risk mitigation strategy, focusing on the Keureuto Dam in North Aceh, Indonesia. The dam, a 74-m-high earthfill structure with a total storage capacity of 215.94 million m3, presents significant downstream flood risk in the event of structural collapse disaster risk mitigation. Using the HEC-RAS 5.0.7 model, a dam breach scenario was simulated under overtopping conditions based on Froehlich’s empirical equations. The simulation results revealed a maximum flood depth of 19.577 m, a peak flow velocity of 1.387 m/s and an inundation area of approximately 49.91 km2 affecting 84 villages across four sub-districts. Contribution: Beyond quantifying flood characteristics, this study emphasises a decision-support tool for disaster preparedness, enabling hazard mapping, evacuation planning and the development of early warning systems.
Stakeholders often justify limited disaster risk reduction (DRR) action by citing insufficient funding and a lack of dedicated legislation and institutional infrastructure. This has changed thanks to the Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks, as national governments have created dedicated DRR ministries or agencies, resulting in widespread policy adoption and funding increases. Evidence shows these institutionalisations can instrumentalise DRR under neoliberal agendas driven by international donors. This article, however, highlights how the fixation on dedicated laws, institutions and funding has produced a siloed DRR policy. Using Chile as a case, and the implementation of the Law 21.364, it describes the instrumentation created to deal with disasters at the local level, including DRR and emergency plans, as well as new functions and municipal structures. Given Chile’s subnational governance, municipalities are forced to self-fund a policy issue that is not prioritised, and it leads to the separation of risk reduction, climate change and development into discrete sectors. This obsession with everything-should-be-dedicated results in a fragmentation that diverts attention from the structural causes of risk creation embedded in neoliberal development. Contribution: The analysis emphasises the need to rethink dedicated DRR institutionalism towards integrated, adaptive approaches addressing underlying risk drivers rather than isolated sectors.
The effectiveness of local institutions in disaster-prone areas is often assessed with a bias towards administrative aspects or social solidarity alone, without in-depth operational evaluation. This study audits the internal performance of the Disaster Risk Reduction Organisation or Organisasi Pengurangan Risiko Bencana (OPRB) in Krinjing Village, Magelang, facing the threat of Merapi Volcano’s eruption. Using a quantitative descriptive approach with purposive sampling, data were collected through a closed-ended questionnaire administered to 12 key structural informants, followed by in-depth interviews to contextualise the findings. The results showed a significant difference: the OPRB demonstrated superior tactical capacity in the emergency response phase, driven by social capital and logistical independence. However, this advantage is inversely proportional to the pre-disaster phase, marked by top-down planning and minimal participation. In the post-disaster phase, the OPRB showed the lowest performance in monitoring and evaluation, breaking the organisational learning cycle. These findings indicate that the OPRB does not currently function as an adaptive resilience organisation. To transform this capacity, the study formulates three institutional engineering strategies: institutionalising disaster management in the RPJMDes document, formalising local wisdom and decentralising authority. These approaches are expected to close the managerial gap and achieve sustainable community resilience on Merapi’s slopes. Contribution: This research fills a practical and theoretical gap by demonstrating how the dominance of top-down approaches in local disaster management stifles grassroots resilience, despite strong informal social capital during emergencies. Its primary contribution is a phase-specific evaluation and a strategic transformation model to institutionalise resilience, directly supporting the journal’s scope of disaster risk reduction and resilience.
Sandy beaches are dynamic in nature and subject to natural and anthropogenic processes that influence their evolution. One of the key drivers of coastal evolution is coastal erosion. Sandy beaches are more susceptible to erosion because their fine sand is easily erodible. As approximately 80% of South Africa’s coastline consists of sandy beaches, including environmentally sensitive dune systems, an impetus is to improve our knowledge and understanding of processes in the coastal zone to aid in coastal zone management and planning for future hazards. This research integrated geographical information systems, remote sensing and modelling techniques to determine the interrelationships between the spatial and temporal dynamics of shoreline change along the Richards Bay coastline in South Africa. Shoreline positions were quantified over 45 years between 1977 and 2022 using the United States Geological Survey’s Digital Shoreline Analysis System. The historical data were then used to estimate shoreline positions 10 years and 20 years into the future using the extrapolated linear regression method. The study revealed persistent erosion north of the harbour, with accretion occurring south of the harbour. Furthermore, the storm surge analysis revealed that a 10 m surge inundated 82% of the study area. Contribution: This serves as an important source of information for flood risk analysis and disaster management within and around the Port of Richards Bay, South Africa.
This Table of Contents reflects the print compilation of peer-reviewed articles published in the journal. Each article listed was originally published online under the journal’s open access model and remains individually accessible and citable. This compilation has been created solely for print distribution, reference, and archival purposes. No new research content is introduced. The publisher affirms that all articles included in this compilation have undergone the journal’s standard editorial and peer-review processes.
Urban infrastructure in developing countries faces mounting pressures to achieve both sustainability and disaster resilience amid limited data and institutional capacity. This study presents the first empirical application of a Sustainable and Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure (SDRI) assessment framework to the road and bridge network of Bandung, Indonesia. Using secondary data from the Bandung City Government, the National Disaster Management Agency, and the Central Bureau of Statistics, complemented by expert interpretation, the framework evaluates seven dimensions – risk, vulnerability, resistance, recovery time, social, economic and environmental. The assessment reveals a highly unbalanced profile: while Bandung demonstrates strong reactive capacities in the recovery time (3.29) and social (3.62) dimensions, its proactive components, such as risk (0.00) and vulnerability (0.43), remain critically weak. The city’s infrastructure thus exhibits resilience in restoring function after disruption but lacks anticipatory strength to mitigate risks beforehand. Economic fragility (1.50) and the absence of integrated hazard-based planning further constrain systemic resilience. Methodologically, the study validates the SDRI framework’s feasibility for data-limited contexts and its adaptability across infrastructure types. The findings underscore the need to transition from reactive repair-based practices towards proactive, risk-informed, and adaptively governed infrastructure planning. Contribution: By operationalising the sustainability–resilience nexus within an actual municipal context, this research bridges the gap between conceptual frameworks and practical assessment, offering a replicable approach for urban policymakers seeking to institutionalise resilience in sustainable infrastructure development.
This study aims to explore the contribution of social network-building programmes of non-disaster risk reduction (non-DRR) non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) within the context of the Satkhira district of Bangladesh using social network-building theory. Purposive sampling was employed and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 45 respondents, including beneficiaries of NGOs, NGO officials and local government representatives. Data were analysed using the thematic analysis technique with the assistance of NVivo12 software. The data reveal that non-DRR NGOs contribute to CBDRR by creating bonding, bridging and linking networks that enhance coordination and collaboration at various levels. Bonding networks enhance coordination and collaboration within the community, bridging networks enhance collaboration between different communities, and linking networks enhance collaboration between local and external communities, thereby increasing the availability of resources, technical support and assistance. Such networks enable timely disaster preparedness, response and recovery. Nevertheless, there are several challenges to these functions, such as the diversity of stakeholder interests and an overshadowing of local needs by donor-driven priorities. Contribution: This study highlights the social network building activities of non-DRR NGOs, their contribution to disaster resilience, and the need to integrate disaster risk reduction (DRR) education into the programmes of non-DRR NGOs. These findings are useful for policymakers, practitioners and other NGOs that intend to use social networks to enhance community resilience. This study also points to the need for further investigation to determine whether these findings are applicable to other settings.
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) play an important role in employment creation and local economic stability, yet they are highly vulnerable to disasters and operational disruptions. This study synthesises existing evidence on risk management frameworks used by SMEs in low- and middle-income countries and examines how these approaches contribute to disaster risk reduction and business continuity. A PRISMA-guided systematic review was conducted using major academic databases and selected grey literature covering the period 2000 to 2025. Eligible studies examined the application or adaptation of structured risk management approaches, including enterprise risk management, business continuity management and related frameworks in SME contexts. The search identified 2 640 records, of which 76 studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings indicate that simplified versions of internationally recognised frameworks, particularly ISO-aligned risk management, COSO-based enterprise risk management and business continuity toolkits, are most frequently adopted by SMEs. Across sectors and regions, these approaches are associated with improved preparedness, increased risk awareness and shorter recovery times following disruptions. However, evidence linking adoption to sustained financial performance or long-term resilience remains limited. The review also highlights important gaps in the evidence base, including limited use of causal research designs, reliance on self-reported measures and the underrepresentation of micro, informal and women-owned enterprises. Contribution: Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that proportionate and context-sensitive practices can strengthen SME preparedness and recovery capacity. Policymakers and support institutions should promote accessible guidance, phased adoption pathways and practical continuity tools to better integrate SME resilience into local disaster risk reduction strategies.
Recurrent climate-driven flooding in the low-lying coastal communities of Demak, Central Java, significantly strains local capacity and tests disaster volunteer resilience. Following two major floods in March 2024, Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) volunteers engaged in a 2-month emergency response. This sequential explanatory mixed methods study investigated the levels of volunteer resilience and the multisystem factors that support them. A survey was conducted with 69 PMI volunteers (aged 18-55 years) using an adapted Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), followed by semi-structured interviews with 17 participants, including volunteers, family members and PMI staff. Descriptive statistical and thematic analyses were used, and the findings were integrated through a joint display. Findings indicated that 63.8% of participants exhibited moderate resilience, with personal competence and internal trust showing relatively higher prominence. The qualitative findings identified five themes contributing to disaster volunteer resilience: personal competence, spirituality, cultural values, emotional support and functional support. Contribution:This study extends disaster risk scholarship by showing that disaster volunteer resilience in a flood-prone coastal setting is sustained through multisystem interactions rather than individual capacity alone. The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings highlights resilience resources that are not fully captured by standard quantitative indicators, including culturally rooted values, familial support, collective spirituality and organisational functional support. These findings provide context-specific insights for strengthening affiliated volunteer support in disaster risk reduction and humanitarian response.
Botswana’s economy is highly exposed to floods, estimated to cost an average of $90 million, about 0.56% of the total annual country gross domestic product. Flooding is common in urban catchments, including Botswana’s Notwane Catchment. The catchment is characterised by increased population anchored in the capital Gaborone, infrastructure expansion and altered natural drainage. The effects of floods necessitate proactive interventions that consider blended approaches for selecting, assessing and mapping flood conditioning factors (FCFs). This study aimed to demonstrate a triangulated, multicriteria approach for flood susceptibility mapping in the Notwane Catchment. The FCFs were identified through questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and literature, and these included land-use, rainfall, elevation, flow accumulation, slope and soil type, among others. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP), supported by principal component analysis (PCA), was employed to derive the weights of factors using the Business Performance Management Singapore AHP tool in Microsoft Excel. Weighted factors were integrated into ESRI’s ArcMap 10.8 for spatial analysis and mapping. Cumulative rainfall (38.79%) emerged as the most critical factor, while altered land-use (21.35%), with statistically significant clustering of risk around built-up areas and water bodies (GiP-value = 0.062), was the second-largest contributor. Approximately 57.6% (5201.2 km2) of the catchment area is at moderate risk of flooding, covering Greater Gaborone, Mochudi, Ramotswa, and Kanye. Contribution: Research and promotion of triangulated and blended approaches anchored on geospatial technologies to investigate flood susceptibility will influence targeted and site-specific risk-informed development in urban catchments while addressing Goal 11 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
This study explores the intersection of mobility, climate change adaptation and artificial intelligence (AI) in South Africa. As climate change impacts mobility patterns, South Africa needs effective adaptation strategies, especially to manage the mobility of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and prevent maladaptation. Artificial intelligence is used to improve lives and livelihoods in such situations, but it raises legal and policy questions. The objective of the article is to uncover the legal and policy implications of AI’s role as a climate technology for adaptation amongst IDPs in South Africa. The article utilises a qualitative desk-based approach to analyse legal frameworks, literature, official records such as parliamentary transcripts, non-governmental organisations (NGO) reports and online repositories on IDPs’ mobility patterns and adaptation, as well as the South African government’s technological interventions to support better adaptation. The findings reveal that AI can improve the planning of IDPs’ relocation. Its tools can improve needs assessment, resource allocation, protection services or infrastructure planning. However, South Africa’s legal frameworks lack specific provisions on AI. Hence, regulations are needed to address AI’s evolving role in climate adaptation in South Africa. Contribution: The study concluded that with AI policies and laws, maladaptation associated with mobility can be mitigated in South Africa.
The 2018 Lombok earthquake caused extensive housing and infrastructure damage in North Lombok Regency, triggering large-scale reconstruction efforts. Post-disaster housing reconstruction (PDHR) is crucial not only for rebuilding damaged physical structures but also for enhancing the resilience of affected communities. However, many reconstruction programmes continue to rely on top-down approaches that neglect sustainability principles and disregard the cultural values inherent in local wisdom (LW). Therefore, this study aimed to develop and test an integrated model that links PDHR, sustainable construction (SC), LW and disaster-resilient cities (DRC). This study adopted a quantitative methodology, with data gathered via a questionnaire survey of 125 disaster-affected residents and analysed by using Structural Equation Modelling–Partial Least Squares in SmartPLS 4.0. The results indicate that PDHR exerts a strong direct effect on DRC (β = 1.202, p 0.001) and an indirect effect mediated by SC (β = 0.49, p 0.05), confirming the partial mediation mechanism. The results show that reconstruction achieves optimal resilience when sustainability principles are integrated. Conversely, the moderating role of LW was not statistically significant, indicating that LW functions more symbolically than structurally within current reconstruction governance. Contribution: Theoretically, this study differentiates the structural contribution of SC, evident statistically, from the symbolic contribution of LW, thereby refining existing resilience theory for post-disaster contexts. Practically, the findings underscore the need to redesign institutional mechanisms so that sustainability and LW are not only acknowledged but also formally embedded into reconstruction planning.
Technological-based early warning systems (EWS) in rural Indonesia have shown limited long-term adoption because centralised, top-down mechanisms fail to incorporate the contextual triggers trusted by local communities, resulting in a disconnect in how warnings are understood, leading to inappropriate responses. Field evidence reinforces this problem; the usage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-based disaster information systems remained below three-quarters of users and the perceived benefits were also limited. At the same time, Local Indigenous Knowledge (LIK) has long played a critical role in disaster preparedness in rural communities. Local Indigenous Knowledge demonstrated universal adoption and was consistently considered more useful in preventing loss of life, fishing gear, catch and boats. Although prior studies have attempted to integrate LIK into disaster technologies, existing frameworks rely heavily on expert-driven knowledge extraction from qualitative interviews. This approach produces expert systems with unvalidated rules, limiting their credibility and scalability. To address this gap, this study proposes a socio-technical integration framework that systematically incorporates LIK into EWS. The framework was developed through a qualitative inquiry involving 17 in-depth interviews with fishermen and a focus group discussion (FGD) with eight fishermen community leaders from three coastal provinces of Indonesia, and its contextual foundation was further validated using 438 fishermen survey across the same regions. Contribution: The framework introduces three stages: (1) LIK acquisition from community experience, (2) validation through empirical community consensus and scientific explanation and (3) structured integration into EWS. This staged community validation approach reduces dependence on tacit expert judgement and supports future integration with data-supported decision processes.
Nandong Smong represents a vital element of Aceh's local cultural wisdom that has long contributed to community-based tsunami risk reduction. Following the devastating 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, disaster mitigation initiatives have been integrated into school curricula, with innovative pedagogical approaches gaining prominence. This study explores the use of drama, specifically role-playing, to express and revitalise Nandong Smong as a medium for strengthening tsunami disaster resilience among high school students. An experimental design employing a pre-test-post-test group and a quantitative analytical approach was used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. The results demonstrate that the role-playing model significantly improved students' tsunami disaster resilience, with a contribution rate of 57.54%. The results highlight the potential for integrating local wisdom into creative learning strategies and suggest that similar approaches can be adopted in other disaster-prone coastal schools to enhance preparedness and resilience. Contribution: The contribution of this research lies in its innovative integration of Nandong Smong local wisdom with drama-based role-playing learning as a practical non-structural mitigation strategy for high school students. This study demonstrates how culturally rooted narratives can be transformed into interactive learning experiences that enhance disaster awareness, preparedness and adaptive capacity among vulnerable groups in schools. Bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary pedagogical methods, this study provides a transferable framework that can be adapted to other tsunami-prone coastal communities. The findings highlight the potential of transformative, culturally responsive educational approaches to strengthen community resilience and sustain intergenerational disaster knowledge.
Migration has shaped townships into hubs of urban informality that are characterised by the propagation of informal settlements. With their expansion, informal settlements have become increasingly vulnerable to the devastating impacts of hazards. This article explored factors that influence flood vulnerability in township informal settlements in the NMBM. Framed by the Integrated Vulnerability Approach by McEntire, the study collected secondary data sources from reputable online repositories and digital media platforms using keywords. Data were analysed through thematic analysis. The findings reveal that flood vulnerability in the case study is conceived by a combination of the nature and location of informal settlements. The population characteristics of informal settlement dwellers and the marginalisation of infrastructural public service drive them to occupy hazard prone vacant land in ‘stressed areas’. Despite the risk factor of their hazard-prone locations, informal settlement dwellers hold a ‘sense of place’ because of socioeconomic locational advantage and cultural resonance with their settlements that keeps them in their settlements. The study contends that flood vulnerability in informal settlements in townships occurs in combination of biophysical and social vulnerability. The study recognises that the population characteristics of the informal settlements are influenced by migration and its resultant socioeconomic conditions for low-skilled migrants. Contribution: The study demonstrates that the conception of informal settlements in townships and the legacies thereof are key origins of the infrastructural, public service delivery socioeconomic deficits in these settlements that drive the interactions of biophysical and social vulnerabilities.
Informal settlements are highly vulnerable to fires, due to housing materials, poor infrastructure, dangerous energy sources and housing densities that facilitate the spread of fires and hamper firefighting. Re-blocking aims to reduce fire risk by spatially reconfiguring and de-densifying settlements and upgrading services. However, re-blocked settlements often re-densify, potentially undermining long-term risk reduction benefits. Using case studies of two re-blocked informal settlements, this study aims to explore informal settlement dwellers’ perspectives on re-blocking interventions and identify the factors influencing their long-term success, especially the dynamics leading to re-densification. A qualitative research approach was used, employing a comparative case study design. Data were collected through 10 in-depth semi-structured key-informant interviews with officials, implementers and community leaders, and six focus groups (three in each community) involving 84 participants selected based on involvement in the process. The findings suggest that the primary reason for re-densification was that the allocated housing spaces were too small for households’ needs or growth. Others included opportunism and push for better housing conditions. Although participation was intended, some residents felt the process was rushed or exclusive and that decision-making neglected their needs, leading to dissatisfaction that could reduce the longevity of spatial changes. The findings suggest the long-term effectiveness hinges on addressing beneficiaries’ core needs and expectations. Ultimately, deep, inclusive and unrushed community engagement is crucial to capture diverse needs, ensure sustainable outcomes and achieve intended risk reduction benefits. Contribution: This research fills a practical gap by examining the underlying non-fire safety factors that drive re-densification and provide insight into how re-blocking interventions can be improved.
