This cross-sectional study investigated the extent to which bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment correlated with victimized students' perception of school climate and whether perceived peer norms had an indirect effect on this relationship. Participants included 788 high school students (mean age = 15.46 years) from a suburban area in the Northeastern United States. Data were collected from the baseline of a pilot study of a bullying and sexual harassment intervention. Traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization were negatively associated with perceptions of school climate, although sexual harassment victimization was not. Perceived peer norms had an indirect effect on the relation between traditional bullying and sexual harassment victimization and school climate, but not cyberbullying victimization. Findings suggest that practitioners should attend to school climate and perceptions of peer norms in their prevention efforts to prevent school violence. Limitations and future research directions are also discussed.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a motor disability characterized by impairments in movement, muscle tone, or posture (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]). Motor impairments associated with CP may contribute to weaknesses in written expression. A single-subject alternating treatment design compared the effects of two unique experimental conditions (ie handwriting condition [HW] and speech-to-text assistive technology [AT] condition) on the written expression of three participants with CP. The results indicated that after utilizing the speech-to-text AT, all the participants demonstrated a significant increase in the areas of total words written (TWW), words spelled correctly (WSC), and correct writing sequences (CWS) compared to the handwriting control condition. For the two participants with the most impaired handwriting, large effects were achieved favoring the speech-to-text AT condition across all dependent variables. Discussion includes implications of the findings for the school-based treatment of CP, limitations of the study, and directions for future inquiry.
Student mental health problems have markedly increased in recent years. These elevated challenges have placed an immense strain on staff and resources, limiting schools' ability to provide mental health services to all students with increased needs. To address this concern, we conceptualize the use of school-based single-session interventions as a novel strategy to scale treatment access and reduce burdens on resources and staff. We discuss SSIs, provide research on their effectiveness, and delineate considerations for their use in schools. Lastly, we provide a case study to help illustrate how SSIs can be integrated into school-based practice. Although largely unrealized in schools, SSIs have the potential to enact meaningful changes to school-based mental health service delivery.
PBIS is a systematic, tiered prevention framework designed to prevent student social, emotional, and behavioral challenges. Tier 2, specifically, is intended to improve social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes for students demonstrating elevated risk in schools. In order for Tier 2 to function as intended, schools should regularly evaluate implementation fidelity using a validated assessment tool. In this article, we discuss why Tier 2 systems implementation fidelity is important and describe an implementation strategy utilized across three large school districts in the Southeast United States. We then present a descriptive analysis of fidelity outcomes after one year of Tier 2 implementation, including total, subscale, and item-level analyses, as well as variance across grade levels and school locale. Limitations and implications for research and practice are discussed.
School psychology has long experienced a shortage of professionals, greatly impacting the effectiveness of the profession in fully utilizing its training. However, research has yet to examine factors contributing to school psychologists considering leaving the profession in both school and non-school settings. Using survey data collected from 290 school psychologists across school and non-school settings, the current study sought to determine what demographic factors, graduate training and job factors, and job-related perceptions were related to whether school psychologists seriously considered leaving the profession in the past five years. A hierarchical binary logistic regression analysis was conducted with the model accounting for 34.8% of the variance in participants' likelihood of seriously considering leaving the profession. Results showed that 52.4% of participants had seriously considered leaving the profession, with age, school psychologist-to-student ratio, years employed, and work climate emerging as significant predictors for considering leaving the field. Conversely, employment setting and administrative pressure were not significant predictors. Findings highlight the need for considerable changes in workload for school psychologists, paired with organizational support and strategic methods to recruit more professionals to improve retention across both school and non-school settings.
This article explores the role of school-based universal screening for identifying at-risk students and how to leverage screening data to match students to evidence-based targeted prevention, referred to as Tier 2 mental health supports. We provide guidelines and recommendations for using screening data to match students to Tier 2 mental health supports based on a process-mapping framework. This aims to identify key considerations when providing targeted prevention. Our guidelines include specific steps for implementing universal screening, criteria for selecting appropriate Tier 2 supports via data-based decision making, and strategies for ongoing monitoring of student progress. These guidelines aim to empower school personnel to efficiently and effectively utilize universal screening data to match students to appropriate Tier 2 mental health supports.
One in 12 children in the United States is diagnosed with asthma, making it a leading chronic health condition among school-aged youth. Poorly controlled symptoms can negatively impact children's social, emotional, and academic functioning. Given the central role of schools in children's daily lives, school-based supports and policies are critical for asthma management. This study surveyed 574 elementary and middle school teachers in Georgia and Kentucky regarding their perceptions of asthma-related medication policies, support plans (e.g., AAPs, 504 plans, IEPs), and student outcomes. Most teachers believed students were medically supported and had well-controlled symptoms, though many were unsure whether students had individualized plans. Teacher awareness of medication self-carry laws was linked with more positive perceptions of student academic performance. Findings highlight the need for greater teacher awareness and transparency to better support students with asthma in schools. Further, school psychologists can assist in supporting asthma management by facilitating interprofessional communication about individualized asthma plans and strengthening opportunities for medication administration in schools to better support symptom control to prompt better academic outcomes for youth with asthma.
Children who perform poorly in mathematics continue to do so over time without intervention. Given the importance of early skill development for later achievement, there is a need for research investigating the predictive validity of mathematical assessments used to identify students at-risk for later difficulties, including curriculum-based measurement (CBMs) and computer adaptive tests (CATs). We examined the predictive validity of i-Ready, a CAT, and the relative value of adding early numeracy CBMs (beginning quantity discrimination, number identification fluency, and next number fluency) in predicting broad math performance at the end of kindergarten and first grade. Data from 256 kindergarten students in a Northeastern suburban school district were collected over the span of two years. Results support the predictive validity of fall and winter kindergarten i-Ready scores in predicting performance on the mathematical reasoning subtest on the Stanford Achievement Test at the end of kindergarten, computational fluency at the end of grade 1 and earlyMath composite scores from FastBridge Learning at the end of grade 1.The proportion of the variance accounted for in regression models did not meaningfully change after adding CBM performance when predicting outcomes on the SAT (Delta R2 = .03 to .04). Early numeracy CBMs were helpful in improving predictions of computational fluency (Delta R2 = .15 to .22), while mixed results were observed when predicting earlyMath composite scores (Delta R2range = .07 to .17). Results are discussed in the context of underscoring considerations for increasing the efficiency of early mathematics assessment procedures in school settings.
The rapid adoption of artificial intelligence in school psychology has created an urgent need for ethical guidance, as practitioners increasingly use AI tools without clear professional standards or institutional policies. This paper applies existing American Psychological Association and National Association of School Psychologists ethical principles to AI-specific challenges in school psychology practice. We examine how fundamental ethical obligations (i.e. beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for rights and dignity) apply to concerns including algorithmic bias, privacy breaches, professional deskilling, and output inaccuracies. The paper provides comprehensive implementation recommendations for practitioners, trainers and organizations. By grounding AI use in established ethical frameworks, this guidance enables school psychologists to leverage AI benefits while maintaining professional standards, ensuring accurate services, and protecting student welfare in an evolving technological landscape.
Multi-tiered systems of supports (MTSS) offers a framework for schools to provide equitable learning opportunities. However, implementing MTSS with fidelity can be challenging due to limited resources that many schools experience. As a result, more educators are turning to artificial intelligence (AI) tools as a solution to resource limitations. This article examines how AI tools can strengthen MTSS, specifically, improvements to inclusive practices, data analysis, intervention implementation, progress monitoring, personalized learning, student engagement, and teacher efficiency. The article also examines potential risks related to using AI tools within MTSS such as ethical considerations, data security, data quality, bias potential, financial limitations, and professional development needs. Additionally, practice implications are provided to guide school psychologists in leading responsible AI implementation within MTSS frameworks.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is poised to reshape school psychology, with report writing as a primary area of impact. A national sample of school psychologists using AI at work (n = 100) reported on its role in documentation. Of those using AI for report writing (n = 45), most applied it to discrete tasks such as rewriting sections for clarity (69%) or generating recommendations (67%). Far fewer used AI for interpretive or diagnostic purposes, and none relied on it to generate entire reports. Nearly all users (94%) edited AI-generated content before use. On average, practitioners who used AI for report writing saved 6.3 h per week (95% CI: 4.6-8.1), more than double the savings of those using AI for other tasks (approximate to 3 h). AI shows promise for reducing documentation burden and reclaiming time for direct services, though its use raises ethical concerns requiring further guidance and oversight.
This study examined artificial intelligence (AI) policies in school psychology training programs. Ninety-six faculty members from US school psychology programs completed an online survey regarding AI policies at the institution, college, and program levels and submitted policy documents. Twenty-seven percent of institutions, 6% of colleges, and 23% of programs had established AI policies. Institution-level policies more comprehensively addressed ethical considerations (100%), data privacy (71%), and diversity concerns (67%) compared to program-level policies (88%, 24%, and 24%, respectively). Program-level policies showed significant gaps in monitoring AI impacts (0%), transparency requirements (6%), and equitable access provisions (12%). Findings reveal substantial disparities between institution and program-level AI governance, with program policies inadequately addressing critical areas including data privacy, bias mitigation, and equitable access.
School connectedness has been identified as a strong protective factor for student outcomes. While there exists a large body of research on the importance of school connectedness, evaluations of the extant literature on the programs and practices that influence school connectedness are limited. Using the guidelines from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), this systematic review was conducted to synthesize and evaluate the existing research on the programs and practices that are successful at increasing secondary students' school connectedness. Twenty-three studies were identified that were consistent with the inclusion criteria. Data regarding participant demographics, as well as program descriptions and outcomes, were extracted using a data extraction protocol. Thematic coding was utilized to determine common program features. Results from this review highlight the successful programs and practices that are likely to increase school connectedness for secondary students, such as targeted instruction regarding connectedness and intentional mentorship. Limitations, directions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.
Anxiety can cause a multitude of negative effects within various facets of a child's life. Although academic skill-based and therapeutic interventions for reducing test and math anxiety are well-documented, limited research exists on brief, classroom-based techniques to alleviate test anxiety in real-world academic settings. This study investigated the effectiveness of a mindful deep breathing (MDB) exercise as an intervention to reduce test anxiety in middle school settings. Prior to a regularly schedule classroom math exam, 90 sixth graders were randomly assigned to either the MDB intervention or control (e.g. reading a book). Results showed that approximately 2 min of mindful deep breathing significantly decreased self-reported math test anxiety scores prior to the exam (d =.51). Practical implications and future directions are also discussed.
The Mental Health Action Plans (MHAP) Program is grounded in person-centered care planning and was developed to coordinate individualized school mental health services. The purpose of this mixed methods study was to assess student, caregiver, teacher, and school mental health provider perspectives on using the MHAP Program in a suburban, Midwestern middle school through social validity measures, field notes, and qualitative interviews. Two meta-themes developed: (1) There was consistency in defining the purpose of the MHAP Program for each student across participant types and (2) Participants would recommend the MHAP Program to others due to perceived benefits and positive perceptions of the process. By applying the Diffusion Innovation Theory, we describe intervention attributes that could impact future implementation. Limitations and future directions for person-centered school mental health planning are discussed.
The use of self-report measures is an important element in understanding youth mental health, particularly for youth with internalizing problems. Few studies have examined the measurement of internalizing concerns of students employing the dual-factor model of mental health, inclusive of both psychological symptoms and well-being. This scoping review aims to comprehensively organize and examine student self-report measures that have been employed in the school setting using a dual-factor model of mental health to measure internalizing symptoms, well-being, or a combination of both. The systematic search of published studies was conducted across seven interdisciplinary databases to yield 424 included studies for review. Included studies were examined for demographic composition of included studies, how self-report measures were utilized in the study, the constructs being assessed, and characteristics of SRM administration. Results indicate included studies were not representative of population demographics, and few self-report measures assessed both psychological symptoms and well-being with most examining one construct or the other. This scoping review identified numerous self-report measures used in school-based research to capture student internalizing mental health symptoms and well-being and examined both the constructs of such measures and the demographics of the studies utilizing them. Future research and implications for practice are discussed.
Despite the importance of Individual Education Programs (IEPs) for addressing the needs of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), little research is dedicated to understanding the quality of IEPs for students with ASD or factors that may contribute to IEP quality. The IEPs for 73 students with ASD (Mage = 6.3 years; SD = 2.0) were coded using the IEP Quality for Students with Autism measure (IEP-Q; Ruble et al.). Descriptive analyses identified strengths and weaknesses of IEPs based on federal law requirements and best practice recommendations for autism. Overall, IEPs for students with ASD do not consistently meet standards outlined by federal law or best practice recommendations. Recommendations for practitioners are included.
Understanding the factors associated with peer victimization is crucial for prevention and intervention efforts in support youth well-being. This study aims to explore the plausible mechanisms behind the correlations among peer victimization, emotion regulation, and mental health in adolescents in school settings. Data were from self-report surveys completed by a diverse sample of high school students (N = 392, aged 14-18; 56.6% female and 41.2% male). Based on theories (the Victim Schema Model, Rosen et al.; and the Extended Process Model of Emotion Regulation, Gross 2015) and relevant empirical research, we examined two competing mediating models, both with peer victimization as the predictor. In Model 1, emotion regulation (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and mental health (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and life satisfaction) functioned as the mediator and the outcome, respectively. In Model 2, mental health variables are mediators and emotion regulation variables are outcomes. Results supported Model 2 but not Model 1. Within Model 2, specifically, the negative relation between peer victimization and cognitive reappraisal was mediated by life satisfaction and externalizing problems; while the positive association between peer victimization and expressive suppression was mediated by internalizing problems. Thus, mental health variables showed differential mediating effects for each emotion regulation strategy in the context of experiences of peer victimization. Future directions and implications are discussed.
Curriculum based measurement in reading (CBM-R) is a commonly used tool to assess students' reading skills, with oral reading fluency (ORF) being among the most widely used measures. Most types of CBM-R have been developed, standardized, and validated based on traditional face-to-face administration using paper probes, but there may be advantages to conducting these assessments using alternative modalities such as virtual assessment through video conferencing software. However, there is limited research on whether scores on assessments conducted traditionally are equivalent to those administered virtually. The current study used a within-subjects design to compare students' scores on traditional (face-to-face, paper probes) measures of ORF to scores on ORF measures administered virtually (using video conferencing software, probes presented using screen share). Results show statistically significant differences between scores on the two measures with higher scores in the traditional condition. A student preference assessment also revealed a statistically significant preference for the traditional face-to-face administration. Discussion focuses on considerations for using different assessment modalities in the schools and implications for practitioners in their roles in assessment and intervention practices.
Systematic, universal screening in general is a necessary practice in education as a measurement tool. For the social, emotional, behavioral domain, much variation exists between screeners without one "gold standard" that is both feasible and effective. However, a paucity of information correlating universal screeners to the problem solving process within Tier 2 exists. This study focuses on universal screeners and their utility for the problem solving process to identify multidimensional universal screening tools and evaluating their psychometric evidence and usability within a problem solving process at Tier 2 specific to (a) identify students in need of targeted intervention and (b) match supports to dimensions identified as in need of additional supports. This review resulted in the identification of seven multidimensional screening tools, described individually in depth, and across critical screener components of usability. Implications for use of assessment within Tier 2 intervention and future directions for intervention research are described.
