Implementing low-temperature catalytic methane combustion is imperative for curbing the release of greenhouse gases. However, this process is fundamentally limited by the high energy barrier for C–H bond activation and the slow migration of lattice oxygen species. In this work, we introduced a topology-directed defect engineering strategy to synthesize a series of Pd@Co3O4 nanocages with adjustable shell numbers by precisely controlling the pyrolysis kinetics of ZIF-67. Among the synthesized catalysts, the quadruple-shell 1%Pd@Co3O4-Q system exhibits the best catalytic performance (T50 = 305 °C), marking a 2.8-fold enhancement in reaction rate relative to the pristine Co3O4-Q catalyst, along with outstanding stability. Results of multidimensional characterizations (electron paramagnetic resonance, O2-temperature programmed desorption, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) confirm that the unique multi-shell topology not only induces a high density of surface oxygen vacancies, but also optimizes the electronic configuration of Pd through strong electron-metal-support interactions. Kinetic analysis and in-situ diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy experiments verify that the reaction proceeds via the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism. The Pd sites significantly lower the activation barrier associated with C–H bond rupturing during the rate-determining step (with Ea decreasing to 66.6 kJ·mol–1), and the abundant oxygen vacancies boost the transport efficiency of lattice oxygen species. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations unveil that electron donation from Pd to Co3O4 weakens the Co–O bond, thereby simultaneously depressing the energy required for oxygen vacancy formation and the barrier for methane dissociation. This work not only introduces an efficient catalyst for methane combustion, but also proposes a universal mechanism for regulating the chemistry of surface defects through the topological structure of MOF derivatives.
Quantum dots (QDs) demonstrate significant potential in the field of photocatalytic hydrogen production due to their unique photoelectronic properties. In this study, based on the successful synthesis of Ag2S QDs, a rationally designed CoWO4/Ag2S S-scheme heterojunction was constructed by utilizing the band structure and Fermi level difference between CoWO4 and Ag2S QDs. Simultaneously, an efficient full-space electric field was engineered on the Ag2S QDs-modified CoWO4 photocatalyst through charge polarization strategy. Specifically, this robust full-space electric field was formed via cascaded coupling of the bulk electric field and the interface electric field. The successful establishment of both the CoWO4/Ag2S S-scheme heterojunction and the full-space electric field was confirmed through characterization techniques including femtosecond transient absorption spectra, Kelvin probe force microscopy and in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, along with density functional theory calculation results. Under the synergistic effect of the continuously driven full-space electric field and the S-scheme heterojunction, the separation of photogenerated electrons and holes has been significantly enhanced, enabling substantial electron accumulation on the catalyst surface for reaction participation, thereby greatly improving charge utilization efficiency. Meanwhile, it greatly facilitates the participation of highly oxidizing-reducing capable photogenerated electrons and holes in the reaction, providing sufficient driving force for the hydrogen evolution reaction. Ultimately, the hydrogen production rate of CWAS-10 reached 1546.23 μmol·g–1·h–1 within 5 h. Compared with the original CoWO4 and Ag2S, the performance was improved by nearly 2.6 and 4.2 times, respectively. This study offers a novel strategy for constructing S-scheme heterojunctions via quantum dot modification and synergistically regulating charge dynamics, providing valuable insights for the design of efficient photocatalysts in the field of energy conversion.
Photocatalytic hydrogen production coupled with value-added chemical synthesis has attracted extensive research interests as a promising route to realize efficient conversion of solar energy to chemical energy. However, the rapid charge recombination hinders the improvement of conversion efficiency. Herein, a pyrene-based conjugated polymer (PyDF)/Mn0.2Cd0.8S (MCS) organic-inorganic S-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst (PMCS) was reported. The incorporation of large delocalized π-conjugation system and formation of the S-scheme heterojunction significantly enhanced the charge separation and transfer. As a result, the optimal PMCS0.5 composite exhibited a hydrogen evolution rate of 16.3 mmol h–1 g–1 with ascorbic acid as sacrificial agent. In the coupled system for benzylamine (BA) oxidation and hydrogen production, it delivered a hydrogen evolution rate of 3.72 mmol h–1 g–1, with nearly 100% conversion of 358.8 μmol BA to N-benzylidene benzylamine (NBBA) within 4 h. To elucidate the charge transfer mechanism within the S-scheme heterojunction, density functional theory calculations, in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and in-situ irradiated Kelvin probe force microscopy were conducted. In addition, in-situ diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy was employed to monitor the stepwise transformation of amines to imines during the photocatalytic process. This work offers a promising approach for bifunctional photocatalyst design toward simultaneous energy conversion and green synthesis.
Asymmetric electron distribution at single-atom centers offers a promising pathway to enhance photocatalytic CO2-to-CO conversion; however, direct visualization of how such symmetry-breaking influences local electric fields and reaction coordinates remains elusive. Herein, an asymmetric N-Ru-S motif was constructed in a thiophene-based covalent organic framework (Ru/Py-bTDC) via post-synthetic metalation. Under visible light in a gas-solid system without sacrificial agents, Ru10/Py-bTDC exhibited a CO production of 226.88 μmol·L–1, representing a 13-fold increase over pristine Py-bTDC. In-situ Kelvin probe force microscopy revealed that the N-Ru-S unit acts as a directional nanoscale dipole, intensifying the internal electric field (IEF) by 6.15-fold and steering photogenerated electrons toward Ru sites to facilitate charge separation. In-situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and theoretical calculations demonstrated that the enhanced IEF promotes CO2 activation, lowering the energy barrier for *COOH formation from 2.63 to 0.40 eV and shifting the rate-determining step to *CO desorption. This work establishes a direct spatial correlation between atomic-scale asymmetry, IEF enhancement, and optimized reaction kinetics, offering a design strategy to overcome both charge separation and activation barriers in CO2 photoreduction through symmetry-breaking coordination.
Hydroxyl radicals (•OH) are crucial in the photocatalytic oxidation of methane (CH4) to methanol (CH3OH) at room temperature. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is generally employed to drive CH4 oxidation by providing •OH radicals; however, its practice use is often limited by high cost and handling challenges. Here we report a Zr-based metal-organic framework material modified by amino groups (U-NH2), which severs as a noble-metal-free catalyst enabling visible light absorption and electron density redistribution. The U-NH2 catalyst performs outstanding in-situ photosynthesis of H2O2 with O2 under visible light in a sacrificial-agent-free system, achieving an H2O2 yield up to 189 µmol g–1. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that O2 preferentially accumulates near the amino-functionalized pores of U-NH2, creating localized O2-enriched microenvironments that are critical for efficient H2O2 synthesis. The in situ synthesized H2O2 promotes the generation of •OH radicals, driving CH4 oxidation to CH3OH. Remarkably, highly selective generation of CH3OH is achieved with a selectivity of near 100% and a yield of up to 412 mL gcat–1 per concentration of H2O2. Our finding opens up an appealing avenue for efficient solar energy activation of CH4 to generate CH3OH at ambient temperatures.
Achieving mild-condition ammonia synthesis from dinitrogen (N2) reduction has been a longstanding challenge in heterogeneous catalysis, primarily due to the lack of catalysts capable of simultaneously breaking the N≡N bond and hydrogenating the atomic nitrogen with low energy barriers. Herein, we identify a fundamental trade-off between N≡N bond breaking and subsequent N–H bond formation steps across different molecular catalysts, which was not previously established in homogeneous catalysis. By balancing N≡N activation and N–H formation, our computational analysis not only effectively rationalizes experimentally observed activity trends among well-studied Mo-complexes but also offers a rationale for predicting new homogeneous catalysts. Based on this established theoretical structure-activity relationship, we further identified a 5,6-OCF3-substituted tungsten (W) complex as a promising catalyst for ammonia synthesis, overperforming all available complexes in the literature under the same reaction conditions. This work not only explains the trend in ammonia synthesis activity of metal complexes in available experiments but also provides theoretical guidance for the rational design of next-generation molecular catalysts for ambient nitrogen fixation.
Precise control of crystal growth allows for zeolites with tailored morphology, and one of the typical zeolite families is one-dimensional zeolites such as ZSM-23, which normally displays a needle-like morphology with micron-level length. This morphology not only strongly influences catalytic performances but also has potentially healthy issue. Herein, we for the first time show a successful synthesis of ZSM-23 zeolite nanosheets with a thickness of only about 10 nm from a novel gemini-type quaternary ammonium as an organic template. Characterizations of the samples demonstrate that ZSM-23 zeolite nanosheets along a and b axes have high crystallinity, large external surface area, and fully four-coordinated aluminum species. Very importantly, ZSM-23 zeolite nanosheets exhibit higher n-hexadecane (C16) conversion and iso-C16 yield in n-C16 hydroisomerization than those of conventional ZSM-23 zeolite synthesized from N,N-dimethylformamide. These findings offer a favorable opportunity for the subsequent development of efficient zeolite catalysts in the future.
Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution represents a sustainable and promising avenue for clean energy generation through harnessing solar energy. This study presents a photocatalytic system Fe11POM@CQD@Zn0.5Cd0.5S, designed to enhance photocatalytic hydrogen evolution while addressing persistent environmental challenges. This advanced composite synergistically integrates iron polyoxometalate Na27[Fe11(H2O)14(OH)2(W3O10)2(α-SbW9O33)6] (Fe11POM) with carbon quantum dots (CQD) and a zinc cadmium sulfide (Zn0.5Cd0.5S) matrix, optimizing charge separation and light absorption efficiency. This composite exhibits a remarkable hydrogen production rate of 32.18 mmol·g–1·h–1, accompanied by a turnover number of 32,394 and a turnover frequency of 10798 h–1. Notably, the apparent quantum yield reaches approximately 40%, while the solar-to-hydrogen efficiency is measured at 1.69%. The synergistic integration of Fe11POM, the CQD and Zn0.5Cd0.5S components optimizes charge separation and transfer, significantly enhancing photocatalytic activity. This innovative approach provides a promising strategy for developing high-performance photocatalysts for sustainable hydrogen production, offering insights into the design of efficient heterostructures to address crises of energy scarcity and environmental pollution as well as pave the way for future research in multifunctional photocatalytic systems.
Sulfided NiMo catalysts can effectively hydrogenate oxygen-rich bio-oils into high quality hydrocarbon fuels. However, precisely controlling the cleavage of C−O bonds remains challenging. Here, we synthesized an oil-soluble precursor NiMo6-DODA by encapsulating the polyoxometalates (POMs) (NH4)4[NiMo6O24H6] (NiMo6) with surfactants, followed by in-situ construction of an ultra-dispersed monolayer NiMoS catalyst. The “surfactant shell” of the precursor ensured its homogeneous dispersion in the oil phase, while gradually sacrificing and decomposing during the sulfidation to mitigate the aggregation of the MoS2 nanosheets. Meanwhile, the well-defined “POMs core” established an atomic-level Ni-Mo proximity, ensuring the dominance of the Ni-promoted MoS2 active phase. This design not only altered the adsorption configuration of esters on the NiMo catalyst but also introduced abundant edge sulfur vacancies to promote oxygen atom adsorption and accelerate C−O bond cleavage. The results showed that NiMo6-DODA achieved 100% conversion of methyl palmitate and 100% alkane selectivity under low catalyst loading conditions. Notably, the selectivity for n-hexadecane reached 94.2%, significantly surpassing that obtained with a commercial oil-soluble precursor (69.8%). Furthermore, the catalyst maintained high activity across multiple reaction cycles and in the solvent-free conversion of real bio-oils. This strategy of pre-assembly combined with sacrificial sulfidation provides a simple and effective route for designing hydrodeoxygenation catalysts that enable precise control over ester C−O bond cleavage.
Selective hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde (CAL) to cinnamyl alcohol (COL) using water as the hydrogen source offers a promising route to eliminate traditional H2 preparation. However, this approach faces a trade-off between concurrently crating abundant active hydroxyls for hydrogenation and readily removing residual oxygen under mild conditions, restricting current development. Here, we report a naturally abundant lattice hydroxyl-mediated selective hydrogenation process over a boehmite-supported gold catalyst (Au/AlOOH), using H2O as the hydrogen source and CO as the oxygen acceptor. This process achieves 79% CAL conversion and 84% COL selectivity at 90 °C, doubling the efficiency of H2-based hydrogenation counterpart. In contrast, the OH-free Au/Al2O3 shows no activity. Mechanistic studies indicate that the Au/AlOOH boundary provides unsaturated Al3+ sites for selective C=O adsorption and lattice hydroxyls for hydrogenation, which are continuously replenished from water. CO adsorbed on Au facilitates oxygen removal, regenerating Al3+ sites. This work presents a practical hydrogen transfer strategy that leverages the unique lattice hydroxyls of boehmite to efficiently extract hydrogen from water.
Photocatalytic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation from water and air provides a prospective means for converting solar energy into valuable chemicals, which, however, is limited by the low carrier separation efficiency of traditional single-component semiconductor photocatalysts. Herein, we report a facile strategy for constructing an S-scheme organic heterojunction by integrating graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) with covalent triazine frameworks (CTFs). The thiadiazole-modified CTFs are precisely functionalized with benzothiadiazole, phenyl, and biphenyl groups. The hybrid with optimized structure achieves a 3259 μmol g−1 h−1 H2O2 generation rate, outperforming pristine CTFs and g-C3N4 by 78-fold and 8-fold, respectively. In-situ characterizations confirm the enhanced light absorption, redox capacity, and charge carrier dynamics of the g-C3N4/CTF S-scheme heterojunction. The thiadiazole units increase active sites within CTFs and collaborate with g-C3N4 to accelerate electron-hole separation and enable high H2O2 selectivity. Through theoretical/experimental analyses, the O2 adsorption configuration on CTFs is revealed to favor a two-step single-electron O2 reduction route, reducing thermodynamic barriers for O2-to-H2O2 conversion. Providing design strategies for organic heterojunctions with enhanced electronic structures, this study enables efficient artificial H2O2 photosynthesis.
We develop a Ni-Cu dual single-atom catalyst (DSAC) as a model catalyst to investigate the neighboring synergy in dual single-atom sites for promoting the electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction reaction (ECO2RR) kinetics. Through detailed electrochemical tests, in situ spectroscopic observations and theoretical calculations, we found that during ECO2RR, the neighboring Ni-Cu dual single-atom sites synergistically weaken the rigidity of the hydrogen-bond networks of interfacial water and optimize the spatial configuration of water molecules surrounding the Ni-Cu dual single-atom sites, which increases the proportion of easily dissociated water species in the interfacial water, thus accelerating the CO2 protonation kinetics during the conversion of CO2 to CO. As a result, Ni-Cu DSAC exhibits a 1.5-fold increase and a 15-fold increase in ECO2RR activity compared to Ni SAC and Cu SAC, respectively. In flow cell electrolyzer, Ni-Cu DSAC achieves almost 100% Faradaic efficiency for CO production (FECO) from applied current density of 50 to 400 mA cm−2, with the optimal full-cell energy efficiency of 61.1% for CO production, reflecting the excellent catalytic performance of neighboring Ni-Cu dual single-atom sites for selective conversion of CO2 to CO. Benefiting from the efficient suppression of carbonates formation in acidic media, Ni-Cu DSAC achieves an outstanding single-pass carbon efficiency of 67.3% for CO2-to-CO conversion at 200 mA cm−2. Additionally, Ni-Cu DSAC also exhibits excellent long-term stability, with less than 10% decay of FECO throughout a 170-h continuous electrolysis in strong acid (pH = 1, j = 200 mA cm−2).
Water is an ideal hydrogen or oxygen source in chemical synthesis. However, many organic reactions are unable to utilize this potential or even incompatible with aqueous conditions. Here, we report a synergistic visible light organophotoredox Co-catalyzed highly regio- and stereoselective hydroxymethylation of alkynes with N-methylamines and water. This method employs water as both hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) donor, with N-methyl trialkylamines serving as C1 synthon and photoredox reductant, thereby eliminating exogenous oxygenated C1 reagents. A variety of tri-substituted allylic alcohols have been obtained with excellent regio- (up to >19:1 rr) and stereoselectivity (> 19:1 E/Z for over 30 examples). Mechanistic studies reveal two critical water assistant processes involving selective C–N cleavage of N-methylamines generating formaldehyde and subsequent regioselective reductive hydroxymethylation of alkynes via photoredox cobalt dual catalysis.
Methane dry reforming (MDR) converts two major greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) into syngas (H2/CO) for synthesizing fuels and chemicals, which provides a process both economically viable and environmentally friendly, aligning with the goal of carbon neutrality. Ni is the most efficient and economic non-noble active metal for MDR but often suffers from deactivation caused by sintering or coking due to the fast C–H activation but sluggish carbon removal. Herein, we report a rather stable Ni catalyst (NiBN) derived from electrostatic-driven self-assembled 2D composites, which offered a coke-free manner for a prolonged stability (over 350 h) under typical MDR conditions. This outperformed catalyst featured with homogeneously distributed spherical Ni nanoparticles (~6 nm) stabilized within mixed-oxide matrix. Partially electron-deficient Ni species are tailored by surrounded boron species through the Ni–O–B structure, which hindered the last C–H bond cleavage of methane and accelerated CO2 reactivity, thus balancing elementary steps to enable a coke-free operation. It marks an important step forward for C–H bond manipulation and inspires material design in other applications.
Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) unveil exceptional potential for selective photocatalysis, owing to their molecularly tunable structures. Herein, four COFs are designed with vinylene-linked isomeric thienothiophenes. Thereby, the condensation of 4,7-bis(2,6-dimethylpyridin-4-yl)benzo[c] [1, 2, 5]thiadiazole (MPBTD) and 4,7-bis(2,6-dimethylpyridin-4-yl)benzo[c][1, 2, 5]oxadiazole (MPBO) with thieno[3,2-b]thiophene-2,5-dicarbaldehyde (T32T) and thieno[2,3-b]thiophene- 2,5-dicarbaldehyde (T23T) yields MPBTD-T32T-COF, MPBTD-T23T-COF, MPBO-T32T-COF, and MPBO-T23T-COF, respectively. Comprehensive characterizations and theoretical calculations confirm the well-defined crystalline porous structures and distinct optoelectronic properties of these four COFs. Notably, the electron-withdrawing units, benzo[c][1, 2, 5]thiadiazole and benzo[c][1, 2, 5]oxadiazole, tweak the electron push-pull effect of COFs, leading to distinct photocatalytic performances. In the selective photocatalytic oxidation of three sulfide substrates, the observed performance exhibits the following order: MPBTD-T32T-COF > MPBTD-T23T-COF > MPBO-T32T-COF > MPBO-T23T-COF. Mechanistic studies reveal that superoxide is the predominant reactive oxygen species powering the selective photocatalytic sulfoxidation over MPBTD-T32T-COF. Furthermore, MPBTD-T32T-COF demonstrates recyclability and broad substrate applicability for the selective photocatalytic sulfoxidation.
This paper proposes a multi-level structure design strategy, a dense cobalt oxide layer (d-Co3O4), a cobalt oxide catalytic layer (h-Co3O4), and an amorphous molybdenum oxide (a-MoxOy) co-catalytic layer are constructed layer by layer on nickel foam (NF) through the combination of electro-deposition and oxidation. The a-MoxOy/h-Co3O4/d-Co3O4/NF composite catalyst with both high catalytic activity and high stability was thus prepared. The main function of the d-Co3O4 layer is to prevent NF from coming into direct contact with acidic media to stop its electrochemical corrosion. The h-Co3O4 catalytic layer thus acquires a larger specific surface area, thereby exposing more active sites. The main function of the a-MoxOy co-catalytic layer is to regulate the electronic structure on the surface of h-Co3O4, reduce the electron cloud density of the Co active sites, and thereby promote the adsorption and oxidation of the oxygen in a water molecule on it. The electrochemical test results show that the overpotential of a-MoxOy/h-Co3O4/d-Co3O4/NF at a current density of 10 mA cm–2 is 254 mV, the Tafel slope is 118 mV dec–1, and the stability exceeds 12 h in 0.5 mol L–1 H2SO4. Raman, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy characterization and theoretical calculations indicate that the a-MoxOy-Co3O4 interface promotes the transfer of electrons from Co to Mo, optimizes the electronic structure of the active site, and reduces the adsorption and desorption energy barriers of the reaction intermediates OOH*, OH* and O* thereby enhancing the oxygen evolution reaction performance of the catalyst. This study provides a new structural design strategy for constructing stable transition metal-based oxide catalysts on NF for acidic oxygen evolution reaction.
The integrated CO2 capture and conversion through oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane (iCCC-ODHE) utilizes the captured CO2 as a mild oxidant to promote value–added ethylene production. Nevertheless, it is still trapped by low efficiency owing to little understandings about the synergistic interaction between the CO2 capture and catalytic ODHE. Herein, we focus on exploring the contributions of local catalytic environments to the iCCC-ODHE performance through tailoring the catalyst itself and the proximity-governed effect. The Co-ZSM-5 catalysts are developed to achieve a selective cleavage of the C–H bond over the C–C bond in C2H6 through modulating the relative concentration of Co2+. When coupling the optimized Co-ZSM-5 catalyst with the CO2 adsorbent Ca4MgO5 by adjusting packing configurations in a fixed bed, a superior iCCC-ODHE performance with an excellent CO2 capture capacity of 10.8 mmol gadsorbent‒1 and a remarkable C2H4 yield of 45.4% is achieved at 650 °C in the granule-stacking configuration. Consistently, the density functional theory calculations reveal the pathway of these abnormal phenomena that the low local CO2 concentration around catalytic sites, corresponding to a relatively far proximity distance, shows a significant effect on decreasing the reaction energy of selective cleavage of the first C–H bond in C2H6. Meanwhile, the produced *H species can be consumed by the following adsorbed *CO2, facilitating the shift of reaction equilibrium forwardly for the formation of C2H4 and CO. Therefore, this insight into the local catalytic environment provides a promising iCCC-ODHE strategy toward carbon neutrality.
The efficacy of photocatalytic pollutant degradation is fundamentally governed by charge carrier separation dynamics and redox potential preservation. To address these critical factors, we developed a plasmon-enhanced Ag/AgBr/C3N5 S-scheme heterojunction through a facile assembly approach. Systematic characterization and theoretical calculations reveal the establishment of a robust interfacial electric field that simultaneously promotes efficient charge separation while maintaining the strong inherent redox capabilities of individual components. The incorporation of plasmonic Ag nanoparticles introduces localized surface plasmon resonance, significantly broadening visible light absorption and generating energetic hot electrons. This synergistic integration of S-scheme charge transfers and plasmonic effects contributes to reinforced production of reactive species and yields exceptional photocatalytic performance, achieving 87.9% degradation of levofloxacin within 50 min under visible light irradiation. This performance surpasses those of pristine AgBr, AgBr/C3N5 and C3N5 by factors of approximately 1.76, 1.35 and 11.2, respectively. Mechanistic investigations through intermediate analysis elucidate a plausible levofloxacin degradation process, while eco-toxicological assessments confirm the environmentally benign nature of the final products. This work establishes a novel design paradigm for designing plasmon-enhanced S-scheme photocatalysts, offering a sustainable solution for antibiotic remediation in aqueous systems.
Lignin, one of the most abundant and renewable components of biomass, represents a promising feedstock for sustainable biofuel production. Photocatalytic conversion offers an efficient, environmentally benign, and mild route for lignin depolymerization. Transition-metal-based photocatalysts, in particular, enable precise modulation of photogenerated charge carriers and the creation of highly active catalytic sites, thereby facilitating selective lignin transformation while preserving its valuable aromatic motifs. Despite rapid advances, comprehensive reviews on transition metal-based photocatalysts for lignin-to-fuel conversion remain limited. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in transition-metal-based photocatalytic lignin valorization for both gaseous fuels and liquid fuel precursors. We analyze the key bond-cleavage mechanisms using lignin model compounds, uncovering structure-activity relationships between transition-metal catalysts design and lignin depolymerization behavior, and highlight the current challenges hindering practical applications. Furthermore, the synergistic interactions between photocatalytic routes to liquid and gaseous fuels are discussed. Finally, strategies for upgrading lignin-derived intermediates into usable fuels are evaluated, with attention to their technical, economic, and environmental feasibility. Overall, this review offers new insights and theoretical guidance for advancing transition metal-based photocatalytic systems toward efficient and sustainable lignin-to-biofuel conversion.
