Carbon dioxide injection into carbonate reservoirs is a process widely considered for mitigating CO₂ emissions. The objective of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of geologic CO₂ sequestration in terms of CO₂ -brine-rock interactions. Static pressurized experiments were conducted with carbonate rocks at 25°C and 60 bar pressure for 7, 14, and 21 days.CO₂ -brine-rock interactions were inferred from the evaluation of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ and by observing brine density and viscosity. The rock's porosity was measured before and at the end of the experiment. The result showed an increase in rock porosity and brine ion concentrations, viscosity, density, and pH after 7 days; however, the intensity of these changes almost stabilized after 14 days and 21 days. Chemical analysis of brine suggested the dissolution of calcite and dolomite. This study provides experimental insights into the time-dependent interactions of carbon dioxide with brine and rock, relevant to Iraqi carbonate reservoirs and similar geological environments.
Clastic reservoirs within the petroleum systems of the Murzuq Basin in southwestern Libya are examined. This review explores the combined effects of depositional processes and diagenetic alterations on reservoir quality in the J and H oil fields within Block NC186. The Hawaz succession records a complex shallow-marine depositional history dominated by tidal processes and includes multiple transgressive and highstand systems tracts developed above a regional erosional surface. High-energy tidal currents created extensively laterally quartz-rich sandstone bodies that serve as the primary reservoir intervals. By integrating facies distribution, sequence stratigraphic framework, and diagenetic mineral assemblages, this study assesses the spatial variability of porosity and permeability within the formation. The findings suggest that reservoir quality is mainly influenced by the interaction between depositional facies architecture, bioturbation intensity, and post-depositional mineral precipitation, particularly quartz overgrowths and authigenic illite formation. Understanding these factors offers valuable insights for reservoir prediction and hydrocarbon exploration in the Murzuq Basin and other Paleozoic reservoirs of North Africa.
High-paraffin crude oils create persistent difficulties during production, transportation, and storage. Their elevated content of paraffinic hydrocarbons makes them highly sensitive to cooling: temperature reduction initiates nucleation and crystal growth, leading to the formation of bulky wax deposits. These deposits restrict flow, block pipelines, foul equipment surfaces, increase pumping energy requirements, and significantly raise operational costs. For this reason, chemical treatment with depressant-type additives is widely applied as a practical approach for controlling wax deposition. In this study, the performance of two individual reagents, Difron-3971 and HY-154, together with a newly developed composite formulation (DHC), was investigated using a laboratory-prepared model oil obtained by blending several high-paraffin field samples. Wax deposition and its inhibition were evaluated using the cold-finger technique under controlled temperature gradients. Rheological properties were measured with a Brookfield rotational rheometer, and the main flow parameters—yield stress (τ₀) and plastic viscosity (μₚ)—were determined according to the Bingham–Shvedov rheological model. The hydrocarbon group composition of the deposits was analyzed by gas chromatography, while wax-crystal morphology and size distribution were examined using polarized-light optical microscopy. In the absence of additives, the model oil displayed pronounced non-Newtonian behavior during cooling. This behavior was accompanied by sharp increases in τ₀ and μₚ and by the formation of large plate-like paraffin crystals with sizes of approximately 80–100 µm. Difron-3971 provided moderate inhibition efficiency, reducing the wax-deposit mass by about 40% at 300 g/t and up to ~80% at 600 g/t. HY-154 showed a maximum inhibition efficiency of approximately 65%. The DHC composite exhibited the highest performance among the tested formulations. At a dosage of 600 g/t, the mass of wax deposits decreased by up to ~95%, the plastic viscosity approached near-Newtonian values, and the average crystal size was reduced to approximately 5–10 µm, indicating a strong synergistic interaction between the components of the composite formulation. These results indicate that the use of single depressant additives alone does not provide sufficient control of wax crystallization in high-paraffin systems. Composite formulations that combine depressant activity with solvent-active components provide a more effective strategy for wax management, improving crude-oil flow stability, lowering energy consumption during pumping, and enhancing the reliability of pipeline transportation.
High-resolution geomechanical simulations provide accurate representations of reservoir behaviors but are computationally expensive, with typical runtimes many hours per scenario, rendering optimization under realistic decision time scales impractical. This study develops and evaluates two intelligent proxy models using deep learning—an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and a 3D Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)—to significantly reduce computational costs while maintaining predictive accuracy. The models were trained on an extensive dataset comprising 381 million data points generated from 3,000 high-resolution finite-element geomechanical simulations. Following an 80/10/10 split at the scenario level to prevent data leakage, the CNN model demonstrated superior performance on the 10% hold-out test set, achieving a mean coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.94 and a mean root mean square error (RMSE) of approximately 96 psi, compared to the ANN model which achieved a mean R² of 0.93 and RMSE of 145.3 psi. Comprehensive field validation was performed using a real-world case study from the Mishrif formation in southern Iraq. The CNN maintained its high accuracy with an R² of 0.92 and RMSE of 108 psi, while the ANN achieved an R² of 0.90 and RMSE of 169 psi. The CNN also exhibited excellent spatial generalization, accurately capturing localized stress concentrations near active production wells. Most significantly, the developed proxy models reduced computational time by over 95%, decreasing simulation runtime from 2–3 hours to less than 10 minutes per scenario. This substantial efficiency gain enables near real-time reservoir monitoring, fracture risk analysis, and wellbore stability assessment throughout the production life of the reservoir.
Oil spill incidents have resulted in a widespread and significant global issue, posing severe threats to the environment, ecosystems, and economy. The contamination of freshwater supplies has been greatly diminished, jeopardizing the well-being of both humans and various organisms. Timely and efficient cleanup of spilled oil is crucial, and the preferred method for effectively removing oils from oily water involves the utilization of sorbent materials through physical adsorption. A sorbent designed for oil spill cleanup was developed through sequentially treating polyurethane sponges with carbon nanotubes and stearic acid. Extensive investigations were conducted to examine the sorbent's oil absorption capacity, preference for oil over water, reusability potential, and underlying sorption mechanism. The findings indicated that the modified sponge (CNT, Stearic acid /polyurethan sponge) as oleophilic sorbent which remarkable oil/water selectivity and a substantial sorption capacity. One g of the prepared sorbent removes nearly 100% of crude oil within 30 seconds. The sorbent exhibited exceptional reusability, with over 51% of its sorption capacity retained even after 7 consecutive sorption and squeezing cycles. This remarkable performance ranks the prepared sorbent as a superior substitute for the commercially available polypropylene sorbents commonly employed nowadays.
Accelerating anthropogenic CO2 emissions and their contribution to climate change have led to extensive research on CO2 capture technologies. Direct air capture (DAC) technology presents itself as a critical technology in deterring global warming capturing CO2 from thin air. This work presents comprehensive reviews on the recent developments in the solid sorbents tailored for DAC applications. The study evaluates physical sorbents, including carbon-based materials, zeolites, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), despite comparatively limited deployment in DAC technology. Chemisorption materials are then explored in depth, with a focus on solid amine-based adsorbents, amine-MOF hybrids, and amine-mixed metal oxides (MMOs), all of which demonstrate high CO₂ selectivity under ambient conditions. Additionally, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in DAC is reviewed as a novel strategy for accelerating sorbent design and the optimization of the process performance. The review concludes with highlighting future directions relating to materials innovation through AI utilization. These directions offer a strategic framework for advancing solid sorbent DAC systems toward scalable deployment and palpable climate impact. Despite extensive information provided in literature, there is still a critical gap regarding cost analysis, and integration of simulation methods for the design of next generation adsorbents.
Accurate determination of crude oil properties such as bubble point pressure and viscosity is essential for reservoir engineering, production optimization, and hydrocarbon transportation. Although numerous empirical correlations have been developed worldwide, their applicability to region-specific crude oils remains uncertain. In this study, more than 40 widely used correlation methods were evaluated against 20 experimentally measured PVT data sets from Kazakhstan oilfields. Statistical error analysis, including average absolute relative error (AARE) and standard deviation, was applied to compare predictive performance. The results show that for bubble point pressure, Gomaa (2016), Velarde et al. (1997), and Mehran et al. (2006) correlations provided the highest accuracy, while for viscosity, Dindoruk and Christman (2001), Labedi (1992), and Bennison (1998) correlations were most reliable. Conversely, several correlations demonstrated significant deviations when applied to Kazakhstan crude oils due to differences in reservoir conditions and compositional variations. These findings highlight the necessity of region-specific validation of correlation methods. The study further identifies the most suitable correlations for Kazakhstan oilfields and provides insights into their future optimization for improved petroleum engineering applications
Hydrogen production via the steam reforming of biogas has been widely studied as a low-carbon alternative to conventional fossil-based hydrogen pathways. However, existing literature largely addresses individual process components in isolation, providing limited insight into the combined effects of catalyst stability, process efficiency, environmental performance, and regional feasibility. This review presents an integrated assessment of biogas steam reforming systems, focusing on catalyst degradation mechanisms under realistic biogas compositions, process intensification and energy integration strategies, and the techno-economic implications of carbon capture integration. Environmental performance is examined through a life-cycle perspective, synthesizing reported greenhouse gas mitigation potentials and key emission drivers across the biogas-to-hydrogen value chain. In addition, a regionspecific feasibility analysis is conducted using Angola as a representative case, incorporating biomass availability, waste streams, and energy infrastructure constraints. The results highlight how regional resource characteristics and lifecycle considerations influence system efficiency, costs, and emissions performance. Overall, the review provides a structured framework for evaluating biogas-based hydrogen production in biomass-rich developing economies and identifies the technical and environmental conditions required for its effective deployment.
Accurate representation of spatial reservoir heterogeneity is essential for reliable production forecasting and recovery optimisation in mature oil fields, particularly where fault compartmentalisation and stratigraphic discontinuities strongly influence fluid flow. In the Wadi Bana Field, Yemen, such complexity has historically limited the reliability of conventional reservoir models and reduced hydrocarbon recovery efficiency. This study develops a high-resolution three-dimensional black-oil reservoir simulation model to quantitatively evaluate the impact of spatial heterogeneity on reservoir performance. The model comprises 88,440 active grid cells and was calibrated through history matching of production and pressure data over the period 1992–2008. Calibration involved systematic adjustment of transmissibility multipliers, relative permeability functions, and well productivity indices within physically realistic limits. The quality of the history match was assessed using oil rate, water cut, and pressure data, achieving a root mean square error (RMSE) of 13.34 STB/day, corresponding to an average deviation of approximately 1.33%. Volumetric analysis estimates 47.07 MMSTB of original oil in place (OOIP) and 299.18 BSCF of original gas in place (OGIP) distributed across six stratigraphic zones. Basecase simulation results indicate declining oil production and increasing water production due to heterogeneity-controlled sweep inefficiency and reservoir compartmentalisation. An infill drilling scenario was subsequently evaluated using the calibrated model to improve drainage of bypassed oil. The results show that the additional infill well enhances sweep efficiency and increases cumulative oil production by approximately 0.55 MMSTB, corresponding to an improvement in the estimated recovery factor of about 1.1-1.2 % of OOIP relative to the base case. These results demonstrate that spatial heterogeneity exerts a dominant control on reservoir performance and that targeted infill drilling can significantly enhance oil recovery in structurally complex reservoirs. The novelty of this work lies in the integration of fine-scale geological heterogeneity with a rigorously history-matched black-oil simulation framework, providing a validated and transferable workflow for data-limited mature reservoirs.
I am pleased to submit our manuscript entitled “Bacterial cellulose/ Cu-Mg MOF nanocomposite: an evolving prospect for antimicrobial textile” for your consideration for publication in Egyptian Journal of Petroleum. This study presents, In-situ growth of a novel green copper-magnesium MOF-bacterial nanocellulose nanocomposite with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Recently, the world has turned its attention towards the development of new antimicrobial fabrics. Against this, sustainable green nanocomposites are strongly recommended. In this communication, we report the design and synthesis of a novel green nanocomposite, namely the in-situ grown bimetallic copper-magnesium metal-organic framework (Cu- Mg MOF) on bacterial cellulose nanofibers (BNC). The nanocomposite was thoroughly characterized using TEM, SEM, EDX, FTIR, XRD, and DLS. It was found that the Cu- Mg MOF particles (750–850 nm in size) have been successfully grown within the BNC matrix, and were homogeneously integrated. The BNC/Cu-Mg MOF composite displayed strong broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against a range of bacterial and fungal strains. Moreover, the cytotoxicity study indicated that the nanocomposite displayed high biocompatibility, as evidenced by the fact that approximately 92% of HFB4 cells remain viable at a concentration of 31.25 μg/mL. In sum, the results obtained with this sustainable nanocomposite strongly indicate its suitability as a safe and effective platform for the next generation of antimicrobial textiles. We believe that this study fits well within the scope of Egyptian journal of Petroleum, as it intersects sustainable materials development and it is promising potential for environmental and industrial applications, such as the treatment of produced water and mitigation of microbiologically influenced corrosion in pipelines This manuscript is original, has not been published elsewhere, and is not under consideration by any other journal. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. We have no conflicts of interest to declare.
This study explored the pyrolytic conversion of beech wood residues in a fixed-bed reactor across temperatures from 370°C to 550°C to assess their potential for bioenergy production. Pyrolysis produced three main products: bio-oil, biogas, and biochar, with their yields varying according to temperature. The highest bio-oil yield (62.1 wt.%) was observed at 420°C, while biogas yield increased with temperature, reaching 30.4 wt.% at 550 °C. Biochar yield decreased from 39.5 wt.% at 370°C to 21.5 wt.% at 550 °C as a result of enhanced thermal cracking. Properties of biochar improved at higher temperatures, with increased carbon content (from 74.9 wt.% to 85.2 wt.%) and higher heating value (from 28.4 MJ/kg to 30.2 MJ/kg), indicating better fuel quality. Chemical analysis of bio-oil showed a shift from carboxylic acids to ketones, phenols, and aromatics as the temperature elevated. The biogas composition was enriched in methane and light hydrocarbons at elevated temperatures, boosting its heating value from 9.7 MJ/kg to 11.9 MJ/kg. These findings demonstrate that temperature plays a crucial role in determining product yield and quality, positioning beech wood residues as a promising feedstock for renewable bioenergy and carbonbased products.
The objective of this study is to assess advanced polymer-nanoparticle systems for sand consolidation in unconsolidated reservoirs, particularly under multiphase flow conditions relevant to Azerbaijan and the Caspian region. The study aims to evaluate the impact of polymer types, nanoparticle concentrations, and operational parameters on mechanical strength, permeability retention, and overall sand control effectiveness, providing practical guidance for optimal sand consolidation treatments. A combined experimental and numerical simulation approach was employed. Laboratory experiments involved preparing sandpacks treated with varying concentrations of polymer-nanoparticle solutions, followed by evaluating uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), permeability retention, and sand retention efficiency under multiphase (oil and nitrogen gas) flow conditions. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analyses provided insights into microstructural characteristics. Numerical modeling was conducted using COMSOL Multiphysics software to simulate consolidant transport, penetration, and consolidation processes, with results validated against laboratory findings. The study found that increasing polymer and nanoparticle concentrations significantly enhanced mechanical strength (UCS up to 2670 psi) but negatively impacted permeability retention at higher concentrations due to pore blockage. An optimal formulation of 0.5 wt.% polymer and 0.2 wt.% nanoparticles achieved over 2000 psi UCS while maintaining permeability retention above 70%. Under simulated multiphase flow, this formulation demonstrated stable differential pressure profiles and negligible sand production (
This work investigates the corrosion inhibition behavior of the bioactive compound 1- (1-Phenyl-1H-[1,2,3]triazol-4-yl)-ethan-1-one (PTE) on carbon steel (CS) in HCl medium. . 1H NMR and 13C NMR confirmed the structure of PTE. The inhibition performance was evaluated using gravimetric, electrochemical, and surface analytical techniques. The results demonstrate that inhibition efficiency increases with inhibitor concentration and decreases with rising temperature. Thermodynamic and adsorption studies reveal that PTE adsorbs spontaneously on the carbon steel surface, following the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. Electrochemical measurements indicate that PTE functions as a mixed-type inhibitor. Surface characterization by SEM–EDAX and AFM confirms the formation of a protective inhibitor film on the steel surface. Density functional theory calculations support the experimental observations by elucidating the electronic properties responsible for adsorption. Furthermore, the presence of CeCl₃ exhibits a synergistic effect, significantly enhancing corrosion protection at low PTE concentration. The antimicrobial activity of PTE was also confirmed using the disc diffusion method, highlighting its multifunctional potential.
This study aims to compute the petrophysical parameters (permeability and water saturation) of Abu-Roash "D" reservoir in East Alam Alshawiesh 6 (AES-E6) field Abu- ElGharadig basin Western-Desert using the equation modified by Lucia (1983). The primary objective is to determine the optimal constant values for the Lucia equation, specifically tailored for the upper Cretaceous carbonate Abu-Roash "D" reservoir. The Lucia model provides a classification of carbonate porosity based on rock fabric and pore size distribution. This classification encompasses interparticle porosity and vuggy porosity, with a recognition that pore size distribution greatly influences permeability and fluid saturation, which, in turn, is influenced by the rock fabric. Consequently, it is imperative to identify and characterize the pore space in carbonate reservoirs by categorizing them into three distinct porosity classes, each exhibiting unique pore-size distributions and interconnectivity. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance NMR analyses, petrography, (X.Ray Diffraction) XRD, (Scanning Electronic Microscope) SEM, capillary pressure and core data analyses were integrated for wells 2X and 3X to have a clear understanding of Abu-Roash "D" reservoir. According to the Dunham carbonate classification scheme, the analyzed carbonate samples can be classified as Packstone and Wackestone, exhibiting average porosity values ranging from 8% to 13%. The T2 distribution of the recorded (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) NMR for Abu-Roash "D" reservoir in the studied wells confirms the same carbonate classification as Packstone and Wackestone. Based on the Lucia model, Abu-Roash "D" reservoir interval is divided into two parts: the upper part corresponds to class (2), while the lower part aligns with class (3). After several iterations, the constants in the equation for each class were modified to calculate permeability and water saturation values, resulting in a good match with the core measurements and (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) NMR analysis within the same intervals.
The oil and gas industries are shifting towards using biopolymers, and their demand is increasing due to their environmentally friendly nature. In this work, CMHG is synthesized from guar split (endosperm), and its comparative rheological studies at high temperatures are highly significant for industrial applications. The direct synthesis of guar gum (GG) potentially offers a more cost-effective and integrated process for creating a high-value derivative. The study tested the gelling and fracturing abilities of CMHG in water-based fluids and their performances were tested at 100, 110, 120, and 130 ℃ for 16, 24, 36, and 48 h, respectively. CMHG shows an improved hydration rate, achieving maximum viscosity (90-95%) in 10 to 15 minutes, giving a nearly water clear transparent paste. It was observed that the CMHG polymer was completely stable at 120 ℃ with 3% KCl (w/v) solution. CMHG demonstrates an ability to withstand high temperature and high salinity conditions. The results indicate that CMHG would be helpful as a viscosifier and for fracturing fluid applications in oil and gas industries.
The assessment of the Kafr ElSheikh Formation (KEF) as a potential reservoir has been performed involving multiple techniques. Petrophysical, petrographic and welllogging analyses were conducted for the studied wells from the Taurus and Libra fields in the West Nile Delta, Egypt. The Winland pore throat radius (r35) method for rock type determination has been carried out to delineate different pore throat radius types within the KEF for better assessment of the reservoir quality. The petrophysical analysis reveals that KEF has an average porosity of 29% and an average permeability of 819 mD. Reservoir Quality Index (RQI) and Flow Zone Index (FZI) values for the formation reflect good reservoir quality, with a range of FZI reaching up to 20 μm. r35 for the studied wells shows a variety in pore throat radii within the KEF, ranging from nano- to mega-pores, with the dominance of mega-pores. Compaction, dissolution and cementation are the diagenetic features that affected the KEF with the existence of the authigenic clay minerals. However, the impact of these features on the quality of the reservoir was minor as the original network of pores had not significantly changed, in addition to the secondary porosity as a result of dissolution. Furthermore, qualitative and quantitative well-log interpretation was achieved to further assess the reservoir quality. The implemented techniques reflect a good reservoir within KEF.
Industrial alkaline descaling of stainless steel is a critical pre-treatment process that employs concentrated NaOH solutions at elevated temperatures for surface cleaning. The aggressive alkaline environment demands inhibitors because it produces a hazardous corrosion condition. Organic inhibitors are preferred because they are inexpensive and environmentally friendly, yet their limited protonation ability prevents them from working in alkaline conditions. The current limitation shows that researchers need to find organic inhibitors that work well under these operating conditions. The present research tested 1-benzylimidazole (BZIM) as a corrosion inhibitor for 316L stainless steel when exposed to 10 % NaOH + 1% NaCl solution at 60 °C. The protective Cr-rich layer on steel surfaces achieved up to 75% inhibition efficiency through BZIM addition, according to EIS and CV and PDP measurements. The system operated at 63% efficiency when exposed to long-term conditions, but it kept 61% stability throughout extended exposure times which demonstrated its ability to protect against harsh alkaline conditions. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) surface characterization showed BZIM effectively reduced corrosion-related microstructural damage which resulted in a more uniform and smooth surface structure. The results were supported by additional computational modeling which demonstrated that BZIM interacts strongly with the metal surface because of its planar aromatic ring structure and negative adsorption energy. The computational predictions showed strong agreement with experimental results, which confirmed the inhibitor's mechanism of action.
The Ordovician–Silurian succession of eastern Jordan records a critical phase of geological, climatic, and tectonic evolution that shaped one of the most important Paleozoic petroleum systems within the Arabian Plate. This review integrates stratigraphic, sedimentological, and geochemical data from both outcrop and subsurface sections in the Risha region, emphasizing their significance for petroleum system development. The succession captures the transition from shallow-marine sandstones of the Risha and Dubeidib formations, through the Hirnantian glacial deposits, to the overlying organic-rich shales of the Mudawwara Formation. Together, these units constitute a complete petroleum system, with the post-glacial Silurian “hot shales” acting as the principal source rocks and the underlying glacial and periglacial sandstones serving as effective reservoirs. The vertical and lateral facies variations reflect the dynamic interplay between global glaciation, eustatic sea-level fluctuations, and regional tectonic reactivation along the northeastern margin of Gondwana during the Early Paleozoic. Organic geochemical evidence indicates that the Silurian shales attained thermal maturity under moderate to high geothermal gradients, generating hydrocarbons that migrated into the underlying porous sandstones. The integrated geological and geochemical framework highlights the high petroleum potential of the Ordovician–Silurian system in eastern Jordan, particularly within the Risha Field, which remains one of the most promising Paleozoic gas provinces in the region.
This study presents a geological modeling and uncertainty analysis for Mishrif reservoir, constructed using Petrel software. The model integrates data from core samples, and well logs to create an improved three-dimensional representation of porosity (20%), water saturation (55%), and permeability (400mD). The reservoir contains a significant hydrocarbon accumulation and high heterogeneity. The methodology involved evaluating the reservoir using well log interpretations from 15 wells, dividing the formation into three layers based on porosity and water saturation. Porosity correction involved comparing log-derived and core-derived porosity values, which were then used to predict permeability for each layer using the Flow Zone Indicator (FZI) and Reservoir Quality Index (RQI) methods. The model includes detailed representations of horizons, zones, and layers, constructed using pillar gridding. The volumetric calculations reveal a Stock Tank Oil Initially in Place (STOIIP) of 1,069.2677 MMSTB highlighting the substantial hydrocarbon potential of the Mishrif Formation. This study demonstrates the novelty of integrating core data with well logs to construct a detailed 3D geological model, enhancing reservoir heterogeneity assessment and hydrocarbon potential evaluation. It confirms the effectiveness of FZI and RQI methods for permeability prediction and emphasizes the importance of advanced modeling techniques and multi-source data integration for efficient reservoir management.
Advanced oxidation processes constructed on peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation have developed as an efficient approach for oxidizing organic pollutants from water. In this current work, a ZC-MOF/CF-MXene composite was synthesized to activate PMS for wastewater treatment. The effects of operational parameters including PMS concentration, catalyst loading, pH, common anions, and catalyst reusability were systematically examined. Under optimized conditions, the ZC-MOF/CF-MXene/PMS system attained 100% oxidation of 20 ppm methylene blue (MB) within 40 min. Comprehensive structural and surface characterizations established the formation of the composite and provided insight into its catalytic behavior. Quenching experiments demonstrated the involvement of singlet oxygen (1O2) and sulfate radicals, with 1O2 recognized as the dominant pathway for pollutant oxidation. Overall, this work introduces a robust and reusable catalyst with strong potential for start PMS activation and the efficient oxidation of organic pollutants in water remediation.
