The genus Aquilaria Lam. (Thymelaeaceae) produces agarwood, one of the world’s most commercially valuable non-timber forest products, yet the species-level evidence underpinning conservation and trade governance in the Philippines—a megadiverse archipelago with high endemism and active CITES-regulated commerce—remains fragmented. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 165 records were identified, including 150 from six bibliographic databases and search platforms and 15 from other sources. After removal of 78 duplicates, 87 records were screened; 40 reports underwent full-text assessment, and 26 primary studies met the final inclusion criteria. Of the 21 accepted Aquilaria species recognized globally by Plants of the World Online (POWO), nine are native to the Philippines, whereas Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (CDFP) recognizes eight; the discrepancy arises from the treatment of A. decemcostata, which POWO accepts as a distinct species but CDFP places within the synonymy of A. cumingiana. All eight CDFP-recognized species carry national threat designations, whereas five Philippine endemic taxa remain Data Deficient under the IUCN Red List, highlighting substantial gaps in contemporary population and distributional evidence. Pharmacological and phytochemical evidence is concentrated in A. filaria and A. malaccensis, while A. cumingiana, despite active cultivation in the Philippines, lacks a published phytochemical profile from Philippine-sourced agarwood. Ethnobiological evidence was similarly limited, with little documented information on community-specific uses, local ecological knowledge, resource management, or livelihood relationships involving Philippine Aquilaria. Seven priority knowledge gaps spanning integrative taxonomy, distributional and population surveys, phytochemical characterization, agarwood induction, regulatory alignment, and community-centered resource use were identified. This review provides, to our knowledge, the first integrated species-level synthesis of Philippine Aquilaria and establishes an evidence base for conservation governance, regulated trade, and sustainable resource development.
Traditional Maya medicine remains a key component of local healthcare and biocultural heritage in Yucatán, Mexico, yet it is increasingly affected by socio-environmental change. While ethnobotanical studies have documented plant use, fewer have examined the underlying organization of medicinal systems. This study integrates ethnographic fieldwork with all six recognized traditional healers in two Maya communities (Tibolón and Yaxcabá) and a systematic literature review following PRISMA 2020. A consolidated database of 268 use-reports was analyzed using descriptive statistics, Informant Consensus Factor, co-occurrence network analysis, null model comparisons, and core–periphery analysis. The respiratory pharmacopoeia comprised 139 taxa across 54 families. Plant use was concentrated in a limited set of therapeutic categories, with leaves, decoction, and oral administration predominating. The flora included native (55.2%), exotic (42.2%), and regionally endemic taxa (2.6%). Network analyses revealed a structured pattern of associations among plant families and therapeutic uses. Null model comparisons showed that observed networks deviated from random expectations, with elevated clustering and reduced modularity. Core–periphery analysis identified a recurrent core of eight highly connected respiratory categories. Network and null-model analyses indicate a non-random organization of the Maya respiratory pharmacopoeia. The concentration of taxa, therapeutic categories, and use patterns, together with network and null model analyses, suggests an interconnected system shaped by ecological accessibility, sensory perception, cultural transmission, and historical incorporation of new taxa. These findings provide the basis for a preliminary theoretical framework for interpreting the Maya respiratory pharmacopoeia as an adaptive biocultural system.
Treating scientific literacy as a one-time curricular requirement obscures its cognitive demands and social consequences. Reframing methodology and philosophy of science as recurrent, metacognitive training highlights scientific thinking as a context-dependent way of knowing, essential for navigating complex problems and epistemic pluralism.
Livestock is the main source of food and income, as well as a key socio-cultural asset for pastoralist households in arid and marginalized environments. Pastoral households in the drylands of Northern Patagonia in Argentina have faced repeated droughts over the past two decades and a large volcanic ashfall in 2011 that halved their livestock herds. While most households were severely affected by these events, some were able to withstand or recover over time while others suffered prolonged stress or even out-migrated. Through in-depth interviews with 33 pastoral households in Pilcaniyeu (Rio Negro Province), we investigated the factors that shaped their functional responses and adaptive strategies in the face of these shocks, under the lenses of ethnobiology and systemic resilience theories. We assessed livelihood decisions, social interactions and changes in household assets before the ashfall (2011), during the six months following it, and eight years later (2019), and identified four structural and four functional responses archetypes (Anticipatory, Reactive, Conservative and Passive) and their adaptation strategies (Tolerance, Resistance, Avoidance, Diversification and Transformation). Household structural characteristics were less instrumental at determining the adaptive responses observed in the community than their ethnobiological and bio cultural characteristics. Household responses were enabled by assets, local knowledge and social capital, mediated by individual motivation, collective agency and culturally situated values. Our findings further highlight that in such marginalized environments access to telecommunication or road connectivity are critical at enabling a range of functional responses and adaptive strategies, especially when they rely on collective action. Policies to support resilience of pastoral livelihoods should consider the diversity of strategies as identified here, prioritizing aids for households exhibiting passive responses while enhancing the adaptive potential of those already able to mobilize conservative, anticipatory and reactive strategies. Overall, this study contributes a novel, complementary methodology for understanding and categorizing household adaptation from an ethnobiological and bio cultural perspective.
The milpa is an emblematic agricultural system in which corn, squash, beans, chili peppers, tomatoes, quelites, shrubs and fruit trees coexist. It is a cornerstone of Mexico's bio cultural heritage. Within the framework of bio cultural heritage, this study explores the complex relationships between the Mahsewal (Nahua) people and the milpa in the highlands of Yaon & aacute;huac, Puebla. The research employed an ethnographic approach including in-depth interviews, participant observation of daily and ritual practices, field visits to milpas, and two wisdom dialogue circles. The results were systematized through a bio cultural calendar, a methodological tool that illustrates the interrelation between ritual-religious cycles, perceptions of time and space, agricultural cycle and affective dimensions. Thirteen ritual-religious activities and twenty-two agricultural activities associated with the milpa were documented over the course of an annual cycle. The Mahsewal language reveals profound affection and respect for the sacred sustenance provided by the elements of nature. These values are embodied in agricultural work and in all aspects of life, forming part of the wisdom of Mahsewal people. One notable aspect is the reciprocity found in religious rituals, seeking to harmonize with the manifestations of nature and the cosmos for the benefit of the Mahsewal Miltsin. These practices underscore the resilience of contemporary knowledge while reaffirming cultural identity. The Mahsewal Miltsin represents a living bio cultural heritage of the highlands of Yaon & aacute;huac and the Northeastern Sierra of Puebla, Mexico. It offers valuable insights into the continuity of Indigenous knowledge and its contribution to bio cultural diversity.
Climate change will affect the distribution of medicinal plant species in sub-Saharan Africa, with potential negative consequences to especially rural and poor communities that depend on them for traditional medicines. The aim of the study was to determine future climatically stable habitat of Warburgia salutaris, a commonly used vulnerable medicinal plant species. An ensemble species distribution model (SDM) was built from eight algorithms and used to estimate the current and future distributions of the species. Six environmental variables and 146 occurrence records were used to calibrate individual SDMs before combining them into the ensemble SDM. The ensemble SDM was projected to 2041-2060 and 2081-2100 under two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs), namely SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5. The projections were made under three general circulation models (GCMs), which were CanESM5, IPSL-CM6A-LR and MIROC6. Results show that the current suitable habitat of the species occurs in South Africa, Eswatini, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Under both time periods and SSPs, the suitable habitat of the species will markedly contract, especially under SSP5-8.5 in 2081-2100 (CanESM5 =-79%,IPSL-CM6A-LR =-87%, MIROC6 =-71%). Climate refuges that overlap with the future suitable habitat of W. salutaris were identified in protected areas (PAs), such as Malalotja Nature Reserve (Eswatini), Itala Nature Reserve (South Africa), and Nyanga National Park (Zimbabwe). The climate refuges in PAs may be priority areas to introduce the species.
Biodiversity conservation remains largely shaped by technocratic and colonial paradigms that marginalize the political agency of Indigenous peoples, traditional communities, and racialized populations. In response, we propose Political Ethnobiology as a critical approach for a truly decolonial conservation. Grounded in Political Ecology, decolonial thought, feminism, and Ethnobiology, we argue that socioenvironmental conflicts are not externalities, but arenas of negotiation regarding power, knowledge, and nature. We examine how hegemonic models reproduce epistemic violence and exclusion through the enclosure of territories and disregard for local autonomy, despite legal instruments for benefit-sharing. This scenario reflects a structural incompatibility with plural ontologies. By centering local experiences and those of racialized women, we highlight the disputes within conservation governance. Based on this, we propose four pillars for a People-Based Decolonial Conservation: (1) epistemic justice and co-authorship of knowledge, (2) people-based conservation and pluriverses, (3) ethics of Buen Vivir and socio ecological reciprocity, and (4) institutional transformation and epistemic justice. We advocate for a paradigmatic shift that goes beyond symbolic inclusion, advancing toward the redistribution of power, the recognition of "pluriverses," and the construction of practices grounded in social justice, ecological reciprocity, and political accountability.
Social perception of dogs and cats in urban green areas (UGAs) is a controversial issue. Our objective was to determine social perceptions regarding the presence of free-ranging dogs and cats in the UGA of the city of Xalapa, in Veracruz, Mexico, considering human socio demographic variables. Between January and September 2019, we surveyed 480 residents using a questionnaire with binary responses and a Likert scale. The survey assessed perceptions about dogs and cats using urban green areas as shelter, breeding sites, and for predation on wildlife. It also evaluated the perceived nuisance associated with excreta and with the high abundance of free-ranging dogs and cats in streets and UGAs. In addition, we examined respondents' opinions on mass-sterilization strategies and the imposition of fines for irresponsible ownership. Our results showed that male semi-owners of the animals with no university education are most in agreement with these animals using the UGA for shelter, while semi-owners with no university education of the zones of high and medium socioeconomic status are those most in agreement with the dogs and cats breeding in the UGA. Most of the respondents were against the dogs and cats preying on wildlife, defecating in the streets and generating a nuisance through their high abundance. These results show that the social perception of free-ranging dogs and cats is somewhat complex and is strongly associated with socio demographic variables, which are important to the design of effective management strategies and raising awareness among each demographic group.
While the role of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) is widely recognized for its dialogue and complement in ecology and conservation contexts, its role on the behavioral ecology of mammals is still unknown. With that in mind, we investigated LEK on the behavioral ecology of mammals, and which variables could influence such knowledge. The study was carried out in the municipality of Cabaceiras, state of Paraiba, Brazil. Data collection was divided into two stages: (i) free list (192 interviewees), to identify the mammals known in the region; (ii) and semi-structured interviews (150 interviewees). We found that conspicuous behaviors were significantly more familiar than cryptic ones, and higher LEK by residents with a rural occupation, who lives longer in the locality and encounters animals more frequently. Thus, when considering LEK on the behavioral ecology of mammals, it is important to recognize that its contribution occurs, to a greater degree, in relation to more visible behaviors and the informants more contact. LEK emerges as a complementary source of information, optimizing data collection efforts and strengthening the inclusion of local knowledge in conservation strategies. Furthermore, considering in the future bridging LEK and Behavioral Ecology of mammals would lead to a two-way street that can promote a more equitable approach between these two knowledge systems.
At the 5th International School of Ethnobiology in Recife (4-5 November 2025), researchers from Brazil and around the world gathered in a spirit of collaboration and shared purpose to envision the future of ethnobiology. This document presents the central agreements and commitments from this transformative meeting, affirming the imperative for an ethnobiology that is theoretically robust, socially relevant, and ethically responsible. The Recife Charter sets forth guiding principles and bold strategic actions for the decades ahead, championing epistemic justice, co-creation, social relevance, methodological rigor, broadened ethics, and responsible use of technology.
Plant conservation remains one of the most neglected areas of environmental governance. Unlike animal conservation, which has mobilized political and public support, plants remain socially and institutionally marginalized through entrenched forms of differential attention and epistemic hierarchies that privilege animals. This is reinforced by technocratic approaches that reduce conservation to population models and ecosystem services, overlooking its cultural and political dimensions. Meanwhile, critical humanities have advanced posthumanist frameworks, as a Plant Turn, that emphasize vegetal agency and propose moving beyond human-centered narratives. However, even this recognition risks being absorbed into anthropocentric logics that reduce plants to their usefulness alone.This article argues for a critical ecology of care, drawing on ecofeminism, Indigenous ethics, eco-Buddhism and Latin American political ecology. We propose care as a political and practical category to reorient plant conservation toward reciprocity, responsibility, and multispecies justice in a more-than-human world. This review contributes to ethnobiology and conservation by proposing a relational and posthumanist framework-a critical ecology of care-capable of reorienting plant conservation beyond technocratic and anthropocentric paradigms.
To understand the perceptions and knowledge of a target population is crucial for optimizing conservation efforts. Studies on environmental perception can reveal society's empirical knowledge about bats, which is essential for enhancing environmental and health education. We assessed the impact of local knowledge about bats on the prevention of bat-related zoonoses, as well as on bat conservation and the understanding of the ecosystem services provided by bats. We also examined the effects of age and educational level on local knowledge. Using a semi-structured interview format, we surveyed 111 participants who were passers-by in a public square. Our findings indicate that participants with greater knowledge about bat biology also had a better understanding of zoonosis prevention and the importance of bats, though this knowledge did not extend to bat conservation. There was no correlation between responses regarding the importance of bats and those concerning conservation, nor between conservation responses and zoonosis prevention. Educational attainment and age did not influence knowledge of about bats. We conclude that possessing knowledge about bats alone is insufficient to motivate practical actions for bat conservation.
This study investigates the rich spice culture of the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, focusing on clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) as key bio cultural elements across generations. Through ethnographic fieldwork in historic villages across North Maluku and Maluku Province, it documents traditional knowledge, cultivation practices, and rituals surrounding spice-related daily activities. Local communities distinguish spice quality using indigenous terms and maintain sustainable agricultural methods, such as agroforestry with canary trees and gender-related planting customs. The research highlights the cultural symbolism of spices in community identity, healing traditions, and historical resistance to colonial control. Furthermore, it explores the role of intangible heritage in preserving collective memory and sustaining regional to global pride, exemplified by "Kota Rempah" (Spice City) branding to tentative nomination as UNESCO's World Heritage. The study underscores the importance of integrating local knowledge into heritage management to ensure cultural continuity and economic empowerment. Findings advocate for a holistic approach to recognizing spices beyond commodities as vital cultural, ecological, and historical assets.
Cloud forests are highly biodiverse ecosystems currently at risk of disappearing due to agricultural and livestock expansion. Local communities have traditionally relied on them for firewood, timber, food, and water, and other resources. Conservation strategies have often focused on establishing protected areas, yet these initiatives frequently neglect the social component, leading to community rejection and limited success. In contrast the community-based conservation emphasizes the role of local people as the main promoters of biodiversity protection. As a first step toward implementing such strategies is to assess environmental perception within local populations. This study examined environmental perception in three mestizo communities located in a cloud forest area of the Sierra Madre Oriental, M & eacute;xico, through semi-structured interviews. Respondents expressed affection for the forest but did not consider it an economically valuable resource. They acknowledged specific benefits, particularly the provision of firewood, but displayed aversion toward wildlife, especially snakes. Overall, participants showed little concern for forest conservation and demonstrated reluctance to engage in environmental programs, prioritizing productive projects that provide immediate economic returns. Currently, forest persistence in the region appears to be more strongly influenced by external factors, such as agricultural abandonment driven by migration, than by deliberate conservation actions. These findings highlight that before introducing new conservation initiatives, it is essential to inform and raise awareness among local communities about the broader social and economic benefits associated with maintaining cloud forest. Strengthening this understanding could encourage local participation and help ensure the longterm sustainability of these ecosystems.
Fisheries in the Ecuadorian Amazon support subsistence, cultural identity, and local economies, yet face threats from oil extraction, agricultural expansion, and overfishing. This study integrates Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) and fishing practices from 53 Kichwa, Siona, and Cof & aacute;n fishers in seven communities across the Napo and Aguarico watersheds. Using structured and open-ended questionnaires, we recorded information on fishing techniques, seasonal patterns, perceived environmental changes, and threats to fisheries. Fishers reported 30-40% decline in abundance, that over 25% of fishers relate to oil extraction. Results show differences in fishing practices among Indigenous groups and communities, and identify key ecological insights including fish migration routes, spawning habitats, and seasonal abundance patterns. Despite high species richness, approximately 15 species dominate catches. Differences in market access and seasonal isolation also risk the food security of the more distant communities. Our results show that LEK in this data-poor region is not only a source of ecological information, but also a foundation for differentiated governance capacities, with some communities already translating knowledge into collective rules. These findings offer a baseline for culturally grounded, participatory co-management and community-based monitoring of Amazonian freshwater fisheries in Ecuador.
While not promoting wild animal consumption, this study acknowledges its crucial role for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLC) worldwide, making comprehensive nutritional data essential for informed dietary assessments and policy decisions. Employing advanced data imputation techniques to address data gaps ethically, this systematic review, following PRISMA guidelines, analyzed 20 peer-reviewed articles and one grey literature document. We focused on the nutritional composition of wild meat from 26 species across mammals, birds, and reptiles. We assessed 10 key nutrients, revealing significant variations. Notably, bird muscle tissue did not demonstrate statistically higher iron concentrations than previously recognized in mammalian muscle (p < 0.05), challenging established nutritional understanding of red and white meat. Reptile muscles contained 60% more iron than mammalian muscles, while bird muscles showed 200% higher potassium and omega-6 fatty acid levels compared to mammals (p < 0.01). Mammalian muscles exhibited the highest zinc content among taxonomic classes. As in the case of non-wild animals, viscera consistently showed higher mineral concentrations than muscle tissues across all species. These findings enhance understanding of wild meat's nutritional value, contributing vital data to food composition databases and supporting evidence-based policy decisions for communities reliant on these resources.
Guanabara Bay is an important estuary on the South American coast, both for its ecological role, still sustaining the most diverse estuarine fish fauna in Brazil, and for being inserted in the one of world’s largest metropolitan areas, suffering a historic process of hypereutrophication. The fish weir (FWR), an artisanal fishing practiced for centuries, are responsible for generating income and food security for a considerable number of inhabitants. Our research focused on the Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) as an essential tool to overcome the serious lack of data about this traditional fishery, based on semi-structured interviews with fishers identified by the local community as reliable sources on the history of environmental changes and the production of the FWR over the last 30 years. The reports produced a picture of decline in fisheries production, both in terms of landing values and the reduction in body size of the main resource associated with this fishery, the mullet Mugil liza, and increase costs of construction of the fishing gear. The reports were crossed with information gathered in loco about the construction of FWR structures to determine the extent of the use of illegal mangrove wood. The study reinforces the relevance of LEK for the development of a historical overview of fisheries and highlights the position of fishers towards local environmental management and points of conflict that need to be addressed to guarantee the successful protection of the last mangrove remnant inserted in the third largest metropolitan area in South America.
Guanabara Bay is an important estuary on the South American coast, both for its ecological role, still sustaining the most diverse estuarine fish fauna in Brazil, and for being inserted in the one of world's largest metropolitan areas, suffering a historic process of hypereutrophication. The fish weir (FWR), an artisanal fishing practiced for centuries, are responsible for generating income and food security for a considerable number of inhabitants. Our research focused on the Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) as an essential tool to overcome the serious lack of data about this traditional fishery, based on semi-structured interviews with fishers identified by the local community as reliable sources on the history of environmental changes and the production of the FWR over the last 30 years. The reports produced a picture of decline in fisheries production, both in terms of landing values and the reduction in body size of the main resource associated with this fishery, the mullet Mugil liza, and increase costs of construction of the fishing gear. The reports were crossed with information gathered in loco about the construction of FWR structures to determine the extent of the use of illegal mangrove wood. The study reinforces the relevance of LEK for the development of a historical overview of fisheries and highlights the position of fishers towards local environmental management and points of conflict that need to be addressed to guarantee the successful protection of the last mangrove remnant inserted in the third largest metropolitan area in South America.
Culturally integrated approaches to water use and management are critical for achieving IWRM commitments and sustainable development goals. Over millennia, ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica developed sophisticated hydro-agricultural systems by channeling water from natural sources to sustain crop cultivation. Morelos state, Mexico, has a cultural, archeological, and historical heritage related to land and water control through the use of apantli networks (irrigation channels). However, their current state of deterioration illustrates how ancestral values have been forgotten over time. In recent decades, Morelos has suffered environmental degradation as a result of high population growth and unplanned urban, agricultural, and industrial development. This study explores how archaeological heritage can support the preservation of cultural ecosystem (CES) services linked to the apantli network in the state of Morelos. It presents the main findings of restoration efforts, surveys, characterization and sociohistorical analysis carried out in Cuernavaca and Jiutepec, highlighting the ecological importance of the network and the challenges facing its sustainable management. It is anticipated that the recovery of the pre-Hispanic apantli network in Morelos will not only contribute to improved water and land management, but will also help to revalue the historical interactions between people and nature, thereby supporting ongoing efforts in conservation and ecological restoration.
For rural communities engaged in rainfed agricultural systems, climate variability and change are substantial concerns. In response, many communities have implemented strategies to face climate challenges. This study examines the strategies implemented by indigenous farmers engaged in rainfed agriculture systems to address the impacts of climate variability and change in four communities in the Huasteca Potosina, Mexico. The research, based on participatory methods, included in-depth interviews with key actors, stakeholder surveys, participatory workshops, and participant observation, as well as triangulation of information. In the study area, erratic rainfall, rising temperatures, and prolonged droughts are the main climate changes that threaten the livelihoods, local economies, and cultural identities of the indigenous farming communities. The most widely adopted strategies to address adverse climate conditions included soil conservation, land management, and participation in working groups. Emerging strategies involve training and capacity building supported by government programs. Necessary but less common practices were mainly associated with water management. The government programs have promoted several of these strategies, while others have emerged from empirical knowledge. A close relationship was found between traditional knowledge, institutional frameworks, and the availability of resources of time and money for the implementation of these strategies. Consolidation of the most effective strategies requires institutional support to be maintained, so changes in current agricultural policy could negatively impact many advances. Effective adaptation strategies in the face of expected climate change must consider the specific socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental conditions.
