Currently, synthetic dyes are used in leather dyeing that adversely affects aquatic life by releasing pollutants into the environment. This work aims to extract natural dye from leftover Clitoria ternatea flower petals in aqueous media, and evaluate its effectiveness in leather dyeing. The experiments were conducted to determine the effect of physical parameters of dye extraction. The conditions were evaluated through one factor at one time (OFAT) technique and optimized the temperature, time and the solid-liquid ratio for extracting natural dye as 70°C, 40 min, and a 1:20, respectively. The efficiency of pre-mordanting, meta-mordanting, and post-mordanting techniques was controlled using potash alum {KAl(SO4)2.12H2O}, ferrous sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O), and copper acetate {Cu(CH3COO)2} mordant to improve fixation of dye on leather and attained different applicable shades. It was found that extracted dye offered a purple color with leather samples, which poses excellent colorfastness, light fastness, and heat fastness, and moderate perspiration fastness. Potash alum and ferrous sulfate pre-mordanted samples demonstrated exceptional wet rub fastness and heat fastness, i.e. grey scale rating 5. However, copper acetate pre-mordanted samples demonstrated good perspiration fastness (greyscale rating 4/5). The dye uptake was 79.22 ± 2.37% with the pre-mordanted alum-dyed leather, which was 16% higher than the mordant-free dyed leather (63.21 ± 1.21%). Furthermore, the amounts of COD, TDS, and TSS were reduced by 50, 51, and 25%, respectively, using meta-mordanting with potash alum. The extraction and application of Clitoria ternatea dye will promote greenness, resource conservation, recycling, sustainability, and the circular economy.
Antibiotics in wastewater have become a significant environmental concern, contributing to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and posing a growing threat to global public health. This study comparatively evaluated the effectiveness of biosynthesized and chemically synthesized CeO2 nanoparticles (CeO2NPs) for the degradation of azithromycin (AZI), one of the most frequently detected antibiotics in aquatic environments. The biosynthesized CeO2NPs were prepared using fresh Psidium guajava L. leaves. The response surface methodology, using Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to optimize the critical factors influencing the photodegradation of AZI; as initial concentration of AZI, agitation rate, pH, the contact time, the type and amount of CeO2NPs. The biosynthesized CeO2NPs demonstrated a remarkable removal efficiency of 98.6% at pH 7 and contact time of 5 h under lamp irradiation, significantly exceeding that of the chemically synthesized CeO2NPs. Additionally, the greenness profile of the solvents used was evaluated using the Greenness Index Tool and the nanomaterials performance and synthesis sustainability was assessed by the newly introduced Nanomaterials Assessment Tool (NAT). The recyclability and reusability of the biosynthesized nanoparticles were evaluated, demonstrating consistent efficiency and promising potential for water treatment applications. These findings demonstrate the significant potential of the biosynthesized CeO2NPs for mitigating antibiotic pollution, particularly in strategies aimed at combating bacterial resistance, while also promoting sustainable practices in nanotechnology applications.
The objective of this work is to explore the conversion of low-grade phosphorite, phosphogypsum, and glauconite into complex fertilisers through chemical activation to increase the solubility, bioavailability, andagronomic effectiveness of the nutrients. It was observed that the chemical activation of all three minerals significantly enhanced the rate at which the nutrients are released (p < 0.05; ANOVA). The results showed that activated phosphorite enhanced the availability of soluble phosphorus by 110–180%, corresponding to a 2.1–2.8-fold increase relative to the raw ore, depending on the acid level and activation time. Phosphogypsum introduced additional calcium and sulfur, with calcium released in a sustained manner over the 60-day incubation and sulfate losses reduced by 40–55%. The activation of glauconite enhanced potassium mobilisation, with exchangeable K+ increasing by 35–50% relative tountreated glauconite. When processed together, the complex fertilizers produced from the co-activated minerals showed a balanced P–K–Ca–S nutrient profile and a significant improvement in overall nutrient retention, with leaching losses reduced by 25–40% compared with conventional blended fertilizers. The results demonstrated improved nutrient release performance of the complex fertilisers, with increases of 110–180% in readily available phosphorus and 35–50%in available potassium. Overall, this study shows that combining low-grade phosphate and mineral waste resources creates an opportunity to produce high-efficiency complex fertilisers.
Mass transfer limitations severely constrain the catalytic efficiency of immobilized enzymes. This study presents a bubble-enhanced micromixing strategy utilizing a covalent organic framework (COF) co-encapsulating β-glucosidase and MnO2 nanozymes. MnO2 catalyzes H2O2 decomposition to generate oxygen microbubbles, inducing localized microconvection that disrupts diffusion boundary layers without external energy input. The E-MnO2@COF system with 5% H2O2 achieved 98.31% of the free enzyme activity, markedly surpassing the catalytic activities of static E@COF (17.97%) and magnetically stirred controls (90.28%). Kinetic analysis revealed substantially reduced apparent Km and elevated Vmax, confirming enhanced substrate affinity and active site accessibility. The composite retained 76.25% of its initial activity after 10 cycles and exhibited notable solvent tolerance. This approach offers an efficient, sustainable solution for overcoming diffusion constraints in heterogeneous biocatalysis.
Efficient spectrophotometric methods were developed for the simultaneous determination of sulfaquinoxaline (SQX) and pyrimethamine (PMT) without prior separation using two resolution techniques: constant multiplication coupled with spectrum subtraction (CM/SS) and ratio subtraction coupled with spectrum subtraction (RS/SS. In parallel, two complementary AI-assisted strategies were integrated as expert-supervised AI-assisted computational tools to support structured implementation of the predefined CM/SS and RS/SS workflows, multistep calculations, and cross-verification of the resolved spectra and quantitative results. The close agreement between AI-assisted and manual procedures confirmed the mathematical reliability of the proposed resolution process, while AI integration offered additional benefits of saving time and effort. The methods showed linear responses over concentration ranges of 1.0–15.0 μg/mL for SQX and 3.0–25.0 μg/mL for PMT and were validated according to ICH guidelines. Applicability was demonstrated through successful analysis of laboratory-prepared mixtures and the marketed veterinary formulation. Statistical comparison with the reported method revealed no significant difference. The developed procedures were comprehensively evaluated from a sustainability perspective using multiple assessment tools covering greenness (GAPI, AGREE, AGSA, AUTO-AGSA), blueness (BAGI, AUTO-BAGI), redness (RAPI, AUTO-RAPI), and overall whiteness (RGB12). Innovation was also considered through evaluation of the violet aspect using AM and AUTO-AM tools, which additionally provide an integrated calculation of overall whiteness, considering both manual and AI-assisted workflows. The results highlighted reduced environmental burden, enhanced analytical efficiency, and balanced overall performance.
The large-scale accumulation of red mud (RM) and coal gangue (CG) poses persistent environmental burdens, while their aluminosilicate-rich compositions provide opportunities for sustainable waste valorization. In this study, a low-carbon tail grouting material was developed by synergistically using RM and CG as substitutes for fly ash and river sand, aiming to reduce dependence on conventional raw materials and promote circular utilization of industrial solid wastes. A uniform experimental design combined with stepwise regression was used to quantify the effects of key mix parameters on fluidity, bleeding rate, setting time, stone precipitation rate and compressive strength. Multi-objective optimization using the NSGA-II algorithm identified an optimal formulation balancing workability, stability, and mechanical performance. The optimized material achieved a fluidity of 232.5 mm, a bleeding rate of 1.53%, a stone precipitation rate of 98.37%, and 3 d and 28 d compressive strengths of 2.32 and 4.24 MPa, respectively. XRD, FTIR, and SEM-EDS analyses revealed that the alkaline environment promoted the dissolution of reactive Si and Al species from RM and CG, facilitating the formation of C-S-H and C-A-S-H gels and densifying the cementitious matrix. Compared with the matched-proportion control grouting, the optimized RM-CG system improved fresh-state stability and early strength, reduced the comprehensive cost to 11.83 USD/m3, and decreased carbon emissions by 109.33 kgCO2 eq./m3. These findings demonstrate a feasible waste-to-resource strategy for greener material substitution in sustainable underground construction.
Photoinduced cyclopropanation of α-diazo compounds provides a mild and green route to construct the cyclopropane motif, which is an important core in natural products and bioactive molecules. However, the cyclopropanation of α-diazo compounds and electron-deficient olefins, such as vinylpyridines, is less developed. Herein, a blue-light-induced/proton-assisted cyclopropanation of 3-diazooxindoles and vinylpyridine derivatives was achieved, and a series of spirocyclopropyloxindoles including an HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) was synthesized in moderate to good yields with modest dr values under transition-metal-free conditions, which exhibited broad substrate scope and good functional group tolerance. Moreover, the antimicrobial test indicated that the products had preliminary activity to inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Incorporating biochar into building materials offered a viable strategy for reducing carbon footprint. However, high dosages of biochar addition usually degraded mechanical properties of cementitious materials due to raising porosity and weakened biochar-cement interfacial transition zone (ITZ). To overcome this limitation, this study provided a mechanochemical modification strategy to load Si/Al-rich additives onto biochar, enabling it to participate in pozzolanic reaction and thus strengthen the ITZ. Compared to the pristine biochar, the modified biochar exhibited a rougher surface morphology and higher pozzolanic reactivity. At biochar contents of 5 wt% and 20 wt%, the biochar-cement composites showed 8-16% and 12-26% boost in compressive strength, respectively. Hydration kinetics analysis revealed that the modified biochar underwent the pozzolanic reaction to generate additional calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (C-(A)-S-H) gel, which filled the pores and defects in ITZ and enhance the interfacial bonding. Microscopic characterization further confirmed a denser ITZ and the elastic modulus of ITZ in 5BC-RHB and 5BC-MK increased by 12% and 35%, respectively. Besides, the carbon emission and cost assessments showed that the addition of BC-RHB reduced the carbon emission and cost per unit strength of cementitious composites. Overall, this research provided multiscale experimental evidence that using Si/Al-rich biochar improved the ITZ with cement matrix, mitigating the strength loss caused by biochar incorporation and further decreasing the building materials’ carbon footprint.
Microalgae are a sustainable tool for remediating pollutants. To test whether microalgae exhibit adaptive responses and to elucidate their role in dye remediation, Chlorella sp. and Desmodesmus sp., are evaluated in the Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 (CBB)-spiked wastewater. Unlike previous studies that often attribute microalgal dye removal to adsorption or accumulation, the present study provides, to the best of our knowledge, the first detailed elucidation of the multifurcated dye-removal pathways employed by microalgae in CBB removal. The sequential and synergistic mechanisms employed by the microalgae result in the highest removal efficiency of ∼92% and 97% by Chlorella sp. and Desmodesmus sp., respectively. Exposure to the dye triggers adaptive responses in microalgae via morphological and physiological changes to enhance the dye remediation. Chlorella sp. reduced its cell size to almost half, and Desmodesmus sp. modified its shape from ellipsoidal to ovoid, increasing the surface area-to-volume ratio and enhancing dye interaction, adsorption, uptake, and accumulation. This adaptive phase is associated with the maximum dye removal from the medium. Moreover, dye accumulation on the surface of the algae and residual dye in the culture medium acts as a barrier for light penetration and facilitates a decline in the chlorophyll a/b ratio in microalgae, with control reflecting their physiological adaptation to reduced light. Enzyme assays and spectroscopic studies (LC-MS and FTIR) further confirmed the role of microalgae laccase in the oxidative breakdown of CBB. The study presents insights into a scientific foundation for the future deployment of microalgae-based remediation strategies for translational implementation.
White Analytical Chemistry (WAC) provides a holistic framework for evaluating analytical methods by integrating analytical performance (Red), environmental impact (Green), and practical applicability (Blue). The RGB12 model is most commonly used for assessing and comparing methods in terms of WAC principles; however, its adoption is hindered by subjective scoring and the absence of standardized operational criteria. Herein, we report the first “intelligent” version, iRGB12, employing a large language model (LLM) (i.e. ChatGPT Go) as a rule-constrained execution agent for structured information extraction, score aggregation, and transparent reporting based on predefined operational criteria. The iRGB12 model was applied to 12 analytical methods for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) covering diverse matrices, instrumentation, and sample preparation techniques. The results demonstrated high reproducibility (%RSD: 0.7–2.0% across six independent evaluation sessions) and overall accuracy of 96.8–100.2% relative to independent human expert assessors (%RSD: 0.2–1.2%), with no statistically significant difference between AI-generated and human-derived scores (Student's t-test: t = −2.016, t-critical = 2.086; ICC = 0.867, 95% CI: 0.713–0.955, p < 0.001). AI-assisted scoring reduced evaluation time to ∼1 h compared to substantially longer manual assessment. The model should be applied as a decision-support tool under expert oversight, particularly for borderline or interpretation-sensitive cases. Future work will focus on cross-platform LLM evaluation and benchmarking against established greenness and whiteness assessment tools.
Antibiotics are widely used in livestock to prevent and treat bacterial infections, with sulfonamides being widely applied in the poultry industry for both therapeutic and growth-promoting purposes. However, prolonged use leads to the accumulation of residues in meat and the development of antimicrobial resistance, posing serious health risks to humans. To facilitate effective monitoring of four sulfonamide compounds (sulfapyridine, sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethazine), glass fiber-based microextraction patches were designed with hydrophilic-lipophilic balance and polydimethylsiloxane coating materials. The extraction efficiency was evaluated over the concentration range 100–1000 ng/mL for each antibiotic. The analytes were quantified using triple quad gas chromatography mass spectrometer. The method achieved a good detection and quantification limits of (24.3 – 832.8 ng/g) and (81.1 – 2776.1 ng/g), respectively. The method aligns with the principles of green analytical chemistry. This technique could be used to monitor antibiotic residues in meat samples in compliance with food safety regulations.
Polyethersulfone (PES) nanofiltration (NF) membranes suffer from intrinsic hydrophobicity and a severe permeability-selectivity trade-off, limiting their efficiency for mixed contaminant removal (salts, heavy metals ions, dyes). To address these limitations, this study reports a sustainable, multifunctional bionanohybrid, Mag/RHS/APTMS, derived from rice husk, as a promising PES bionanofiller. The bionanohybrid exhibited an average particle size of 12.8 nm (estimated by XRD and TEM techniques) and a ζ-potential of −24.8 mV at pH 7. Membranes were fabricated via the phase inversion method with varying bionanofiller loadings (0-1 wt%). Incorporating 0.5 wt% of this bionanofiller reduced the water contact angle from 83.2° to 53.1° and shifted the surface ζ-potential to −39.8 mV, while increasing pure water flux from 45.8 to 88.5 L m−2 h−1 at 0.4 MPa. The optimal membrane achieved rejections of 85.1% for Na2SO4, 91.6% for Pb2+ ions, and 93.7% for methyl orange (MO) dye. Mechanistically, the enhanced performance is attributed to a combination of Donnan exclusion, coordination complexation, and electrostatic repulsion, as supported by zeta potential measurements and the known chemistry of the amine-functionalized surface. The membrane also exhibited excellent antifouling properties with a flux recovery ratio of 92.6% after BSA fouling and maintained stable performance over five regeneration cycles with no detectable bionanofiller leaching. This work demonstrates that integrating agricultural waste-derived, amino-functionalized magnetic bionanohybrid into PES NF membranes provides a scalable and sustainable approach for enhanced water treatment applications, though validation with real industrial wastewater remains a subject of future work.
This study presents the first development and validation of two smartphone-assisted colorimetric microwell (SP-CMW) methods for the quantitative determination of avapritinib (AVA) in tablet dosage form. The approach offers a cost-effective, environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional techniques that require centralized instrumentation and generate significant waste. Both methods are based on the same strategy which is the formation of colored charge-transfer complexes between AVA (n-electron donor) and two π-acceptors: 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) and chloranilic acid (CLA) in acetonitrile. The reaction of AVA produced red and purple colored complexes with DDQ and CLA, respectively. Reaction conditions were optimized, and computational modeling confirmed complex stabilization via hydrogen bonding and π-stacking. Image of colored products in 96-well plates was captured using a smartphone camera, and RGB (red-green-blue) intensities were analyzed using open-source ImageJ software. The SP-CMW methods demonstrated excellent analytical performance: linear ranges of 0.16–25 μg/well (r2 > 0.97), limits of detection of 0.8for DDQ method and 3.3μg/well for CLA method, mean recoveries of 99.11–101.55%, and precision (RSD) of≤3.81%. Statistical comparison with a standard pre-validated absorbance plate reader-based microwell method, serving as the reference method) showed no significant differences (p > 0.05), validating the reliability of the smartphone-based approach. Each sample analysis generates only 200 μL of waste. Throughput reached 176 samples per hour, substantially exceedingly previously reported methods. Comprehensive sustainability evaluation using the Environmental Performance and Practicality Index (EPPI) awarded the SP-CMW methods the highest total score (76.4) compared to existing techniques (54.2–71.5), reflecting superior environmental performance, minimal reagent consumption, low energy usage, and reduced waste generation. The proposed SP-CMW methods represent a practical, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable alternative for AVA quality control, particularly suitable for on-site analysis and resource-limited settings.
Dolomite catalysts are effective for biomass tar cracking, but their application is limited by poor mechanical stability and coke deposition. Here, a La and Ce modified dolomite quartz sand porous ceramic catalyst was developed for biomass steam gasification. The optimized 6La-4Ce/SC catalyst showed an H2 volume fraction of 38.47% at 850 °C and −1 steam, with an H2/CO ratio of 1.50, an H2+CO fraction of 64.04%, and total gas and syngas yields of 1.52 and 0.97 Nm3·kg−1. Tar analysis showed that LCSC promoted tar lightning, reducing heterocyclic aromatics, heavy polycyclic aromatics, and >C13 species to 20.8%, 0.8%, and 4.5%, respectively. During 5-25 cycles, H2 decreased from 38.12% to 30.48%, while H2+CO remained at 59.35% after 25 cycles, indicating gradual rather than abrupt deactivation. The catalyst retained good physical stability, with low attrition loss after repeated cycling. The improved performance is attributed to the combined effects of La enhanced basicity, Ce4+/Ce3+ oxygen vacancy regulation, Ca/Mg assisted tar conversion, and the supporting role of the Ca Mg Si ceramic framework.
Quality assurance of first-line anti-tuberculosis fixed-dose combination (FDC) tablets remains analytically challenging owing to physicochemical incompatibilities and solution-phase drug–drug interactions among rifampicin (RIF), isoniazid (INH), pyrazinamide (PZA), and ethambutol (EMB). Conventional USP HPLC methods require two separate chromatographic systems for the simultaneous assay of all four drugs and generate substantial quantities of organic solvent waste. In the single commercial FDC product evaluated in this study, the compendial USP methods exhibited systematic recovery biases. To address these limitations, a sustainable and fit-for-purpose full-spectrum PLS (FS-PLS) calibration model was developed for the direct solid-state quantification of KBr-dispersed intact tablet powder (5% w/w drug load, 4000-400 cm−1, 4 cm−1 resolution, 32 co-added scans at ambient temperature 22 ± 2°C, R.H. 35 ± 5%). The calibration design was anchored to the actual fixed-dose concentration ratios of RIF, INH, PZA, and EMB, with systematic variation across 80–120% of the test concentration to cover the validation-relevant potency range using a 25-mixture experimental design. Calibration spectra were acquired from laboratory-prepared KBr-dispersed mixtures spanning the target concentration range. Model performance was benchmarked against interval PLS (iPLS) and wavelength-selected PLS (w-PLS) approaches. The validated FS-PLS method was applied to a commercial FDC tablet and benchmarked against the compendial USP HPLC assays for accuracy and precision; analytical greenness was independently evaluated using the AGREE metric. Spectral acquisition time was approximately 1 min per sample; total analysis time including KBr pellet preparation was 6–8 min per replicate, compared with 20–25 min per run for each USP HPLC method. The FTIR-PLS method was validated in accordance with ICH Q2 (R1), yielding quantitative recoveries of RIF (98.5%), INH (101.7%), PZA (97.7%), and EMB (102.7%), with excellent precision (%RSD <3%), confirmed selectivity in the presence of common pharmaceutical excipients, and demonstrated robustness across ± 2% KBr weight-fraction variation and ± 2-tonne compression pressure variation, with no statistically significant bias observed (p > 0.05). In contrast, the USP HPLC methods applied to the same single product exhibited severe systematic biases, including marked over-recovery of INH (≈121.7%) and RIF (≈115.7%) and pronounced under-recovery of PZA (≈43.6%), consistent with solution-phase rifampicin–isoniazid condensation and isonicotinyl hydrazone formation. The FS-PLS approach demonstrated a markedly greener analytical profile (AGREE score: 0.81 vs. 0.36 for the USP HPLC method), attributed to the complete elimination of organic mobile-phase solvents and a substantial reduction in per-sample analysis time. The developed FTIR-PLS method offers a rapid, accurate, and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional chromatography for routine potency testing; it is fit-for-purpose strategy and, however, it does not replace stability-indicating chromatographic methods for regulatory impurity profiling or stability assessment.
Phosphogypsum (PG), a predominant industrial solid waste of the phosphorus chemical industry, is a promising recycled material for mitigating resource shortages and environmental pollution. Ultra-high-volume PG road base material (According to industry standards and published literatures, PG mixtures with PG content ≤80 wt% are defined as high-volume PG materials, while those with PG content exceeding 80 wt% are categorized as ultra-high-volume PG materials. The PG dosage in this research reaches 90 wt%, which falls into the ultra-high-volume category.) can substitute conventional cement- and lime-stabilized road base fills via waste resource reuse, delivering prominent environmental benefits and engineering application prospects. In this study, material mechanical properties, water resistance durability, life-cycle carbon emissions, and heavy metal environmental risks of ultra-high-volume PG road base materials were systematically investigated through unconfined compressive strength tests, water stability immersion tests, XRD, SEM, FT-IR microcharacterization, and heavy metal leaching detection of Cr, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb. The results demonstrated that compound incorporation of cement and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) effectively enhances the mechanical strength and water resistance of PG-based composites. Optimized by a composite curing system containing 0.3% sodium silicate, 1% calcium oxide, and 0.2% magnesium oxide, the material achieved a 7-day unconfined compressive strength of 3.32 MPa; after 6 days of standard curing followed by 24 h constant-temperature water immersion, its water stability coefficient reached 0.93, revealing minor strength attenuation and outstanding early water resistance for road service environments. The total life-cycle carbon emission of the optimized PG road base material was 59.701 kg/t, among which purchased raw material production contributed 44.836 kg/t, accounting for 75.10% of the total emission. Heavy metal leaching concentrations of Cr, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb all satisfied the threshold requirements of the standard GB 15618-2018. Specifically, Cr, As, Hg, and Pb presented negligible environmental risks, while Cd showed a relatively higher leaching level with potential environmental hazard. Furthermore, the dynamic leaching behaviors of characteristic Cr and Cd were fitted and compared via linear, Elovich, and parabolic equations. The linear equation yielded the highest fitting accuracy with correlation coefficients above 0.9, capable of precisely predicting the leaching trends of Cr and Cd. In contrast, the Elovich equation poorly fitted the leaching process of both metals, and the parabolic equation was only applicable to Cd. This study clarifies the mechanical enhancement, water resistance improvement mechanism, carbon emission characteristics, and dynamic heavy metal leaching rules of ultra-high-volume PG road base materials, providing a theoretical basis and technical support for the safe, low-carbon, and high-value engineering utilization of PG solid waste.
Pond ash, a by-product of coal-fired thermal power plants, presents significant environmental and disposal challenges due to its poor geotechnical properties. Although various stabilizers have been investigated for improving pond ash, limited studies have explored the combined use of lime and steel slag together with statistical optimization techniques to identify optimum stabilization conditions. This study investigates the effectiveness of combined lime and steel slag stabilization to enhance its suitability for pavement and earthwork applications. Compaction behaviour showed a reduction in optimum moisture content and an increase in maximum dry density, indicating improved densification. Mechanical performance revealed a marked increase in unconfined compressive strength and California bearing ratio with increasing stabilizer content and curing time, attributed to the formation of cementitious products such as calcium-silicate-hydrate and calcium-aluminate-hydrate. The PA-7.5%L-12.5%S mix exhibited the best performance. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed to develop predictive models and evaluate the interaction effects of lime and steel slag, with Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) confirming the significance of model terms. The optimized composition of 7.88% lime and 1.36% steel slag, yielded an Unconfined compressive Strength (UCS) of 650 kPa and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values of 151.59% for unsoaked condition and 99.99% for soaked. Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) analysis confirmed pore refinement and matrix densification. The findings demonstrate that lime-slag stabilization provides a sustainable and efficient approach for improving pond ash for geotechnical applications.
