Background Bilingual education provides a natural framework for studying how experience shapes the developing and aging brain. Managing two languages engages neural networks supporting executive function and cognitive control, offering a model of experience-dependent plasticity. Methods This narrative review synthesizes developmental, neuroimaging, electrophysiological, and longitudinal studies published primarily between 2010 and 2025, with earlier seminal studies included to provide theoretical context. The review is based on English-language literature identified through major international databases and is not a systematic review. Results Bilingual experience induces structural and functional changes in frontoparietal and frontostriatal networks, improves white matter integrity, and enhances neural efficiency in cognitive control tasks. ERP and longitudinal studies indicate benefits for attention, working memory, and metalinguistic awareness. In older adults, lifelong bilingualism supports executive function and cognitive resilience, contributing to cognitive reserve. Behavioral effects are inconsistent, but neural adaptations are robust. Conclusion Bilingual education illustrates how socially embedded, cognitively demanding learning shapes brain networks. It provides a valuable model for understanding experience-dependent neuroplasticity across the lifespan, with implications for education and cognitive health in aging.
Background Visuospatial attention involves neural activity that prioritizes certain regions of space over others and can be categorized into two types: automatic and voluntary attention. Although both forms of attention engage overlapping brain areas, some studies suggest distinct additional areas of activation by each type. Objective This study aimed to explore the differences and similarities in the brain activation patterns associated with voluntary and automatic attention, using event-related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Methods Twenty young adults performed two attention tasks, outside and inside a 3T MRI scanner, both coupled to an eye-tracking system. Each trial began with a central fixation point and two marked rings, one positioned on each side of the screen. After the appearance of a preceding stimulus, a target stimulus appeared inside one of the rings. The experimental design includes valid, neutral, and invalid conditions for both the automatic and voluntary attention tasks. Results Reaction times were faster under valid conditions than under invalid ones. Distinct patterns of brain activity were identified for automatic and voluntary attention. Automatic attention predominantly activated the right and medial posterior brain regions, while voluntary attention engaged the medial superior frontal and lateral parietal regions. However, both types of attention shared common activation in the frontoparietal network, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, frontal eye fields, intraparietal sulcus, temporoparietal junction, precuneus, and cingulate regions. Conclusion These findings deepen our understanding of attentional neural mechanisms in healthy young adults and provide a normative framework for future studies investigating clinical conditions associated with impaired attention.
Recent dual-process research shows that adults can generate correct responses intuitively, whereas younger reasoners rarely do so. Yet the nature of their lower intuitive accuracy remains unclear. Does it reflect a general deficit in intuitive (“System 1”) reasoning, or simply more limited task practice? We addressed this by manipulating task familiarity in two studies with 7th-grade adolescents (approximately 12 years old). We contrasted performance on numerical reasoning tasks involving well-practiced logico-mathematical principles for these students (Study 1: arithmetic word problems; Study 2: decimal comparison) with a task involving a less-practiced principle (the bat-and-ball problem). Using a two-response paradigm, participants first provided an answer under time pressure and cognitive load, followed by a final, unconstrained answer to distinguish intuitive from deliberate reasoning. Across both studies, correct responses on well-practiced tasks were predominantly intuitive, whereas both intuitive and deliberative accuracies were low on the less-practiced task. This supports the view that correct intuitive reasoning depends on prior knowledge automatization and provides evidence against a generic “System 1” developmental deficit.
Background Argument evaluation, including recognizing argument structures and fallacies, is crucial for academic success, yet many university students struggle with these abilities. Drawing on the motivational model of integrative processing and expectancy-value theory, this study examined how distal motivational factors (topic involvement, need to evaluate, academic self-concept in argumentation) relate to proximal appraisals (expectancy of success, task value, emotional cost) and, in turn, to argument evaluation. Method Data from 675 preservice teachers were analyzed using structural equation modeling to test these assumptions within a path model. Results The recognition of argument structures was positively related to recognizing fallacies. Emotional cost was negatively related to both abilities, whereas task value was positively related to the recognition of fallacies. Proximal motivational factors were systematically related to distal motivational factors such as topic involvement, need to evaluate, and academic self-concept. Relations involving topic involvement varied depending on the presumed prior topic knowledge. Conclusions The findings highlight the importance of fostering argument evaluation and underscore the role of recognizing argument structures for the recognition of fallacies. In addition, the findings indicate the need to reduce emotional cost in instructional settings and to focus on topics that combine high topic involvement with sufficient prior knowledge.
Background Access to continuous education is critical for literacy development, yet many refugee children experience prolonged schooling disruptions that may alter how foundational reading skills develop. This study examined the influence of disrupted education on reading comprehension and associated neural mechanisms in Syrian refugee children and youth. Methods One hundred children and youth between 8 to18 years old completed standardized tests of language comprehension, decoding, and reading comprehension, and participated in functional near-infrared spectroscopy while completing a decoding task. Regression analyses tested cognitive and neural predictors of reading comprehension and the moderating role of educational disruption. Hierarchical clustering was used to identify distinct reading profiles. Results Consistent with the Simple View of Reading (SVR), both language comprehension and decoding predicted reading comprehension. However, decoding only predicted reading comprehension for children with minimal educational disruption. When educational disruptions were longer, the relation between decoding and reading comprehension was limited, and the relation between language comprehension and reading comprehension was greater. Greater activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) predicted better reading comprehension, suggesting potential compensatory recruitment beyond the typical left-lateralized reading network. Cluster analyses identified distinct reading profiles that were predicted by neural activation patterns and educational disruption. Conclusions This study extends the SVR by demonstrating that the contribution of decoding and language comprehension to reading comprehension depends on educational experience, and that multiple neural pathways can support reading comprehension after educational disruption. These results highlight heterogeneity in literacy outcomes and underscore the need for tailored reading interventions for displaced children and youth.
BACKGROUND:Reflection is central to learning and moral development, yet the psychological and neural processes that support it are often examined separately rather than as an integrated system. As a result, educators frequently rely on reflection without a clear understanding of how it contributes to purpose and belonging. OBJECTIVE:This paper develops the Reflective Intelligence framework, which synthesizes research from neuroscience, psychology, and education to explain how reflection supports meaning-making and value-aligned action. APPROACH:The framework integrates evidence on three large-scale brain systems implicated in reflective thought. These include the Default Mode Network, associated with autobiographical memory and future imagining; the Salience Network, associated with detecting emotionally or morally significant information; and the Executive Control Network, associated with planning and deliberate action. Research on identity development, purpose, and reflective practice connects these systems to lived experience in educational settings. SYNTHESIS:Across studies, reflection emerges as a coordinated process linking awareness, interpretation, and action. Converging evidence suggests that interactions among the DMN, SN, and ECN support processes involved in organizing experience, evaluating significance, and guiding value-aligned behavior. In this paper, we treat links to purpose and belonging as a conceptual and testable synthesis rather than demonstrated causal effects of network engagement. Work on educator and student attunement, group reflection, and purpose-centered interventions suggests that reflection often unfolds within relationships as well as within individuals. CONCLUSION:The Reflective Intelligence framework offers a neuroscience-informed account of how structured reflection may strengthen learning, self-regulation, and belonging. It positions reflection as a teachable, relational practice and outlines directions for future research on reflective processes in education.
BACKGROUND:Perceptually rich visualizations are known to pose cognitive demands. Cognitive load theory suggests that design choices can mitigate negative effects on learning performance. AIMS:We aim to evaluate whether cueing is able to reduce the cognitive demands of a parallax effect induced by constrained interactivity in learning with perceptually rich visualizations. SAMPLE:191 university students were included in the final sample. METHODS:Participants were randomly assigned to learn with a perceptually rich anatomical visualization in one of four versions resulting from the factors constrained interactivity (static vs. interactive parallax effect) and visual boundary cues (without vs. with cues). The constrained interactivity allowed participants to slightly rotate an anatomical model. Subjective cognitive load during learning was assessed using a survey. Participants completed image-based and text-based retention tests. RESULTS:Contrary to the notion that cues help learners facing perceptually rich task, we found that cues only benefit learning with the static visualization. As indicated by an interaction effect, cueing lowered retention performance in the constrained interactive condition. Germane cognitive load ratings suggest that participants recognized the cues as helpful in the interactive parallax effect condition while preferring the variant without cues in the static condition. CONCLUSION:The cognitive demands of minimally interactive perceptually rich visualizations cannot simply be reduced by inserting boundary cues. Instead, visual cues may even add to the perceptual richness of visualizations if they feature subtle forms of interactivity. The perceptual demands of a slightly adjustable visualization that was extended by cues may have been too high.
Reading Chinese characters requires the dynamic integration of orthographic, phonological, and semantic components. This may engage distributed cortical systems specific to each of the linguistic elements. One important question to explore is whether a general reading-related network exists that not only supports multiple linguistic processes but also reuses pre-existing perceptual and control circuits to subserve multi-level language processing. In this study, we re-analyzed a previously published dataset using a within-participant multi-task functional magnetic resonance imaging design in 22 children and 20 adults, including lexical decision, homophone judgement, and semantic judgement tasks. Conjunction analyses revealed a left-lateralized network consistently activated across tasks, encompassing the left inferior frontal gyrus (BAs 44/45/47), middle frontal gyrus (BAs 9/46), pre-supplementary motor area, bilateral insula, left fusiform area (BA 37), and middle/inferior occipital gyrus (BAs 18/19). Notably, no significant group differences were observed, indicating the early formation of this integrative neural network. Functionally, the occipitotemporal regions formed a perceptual-orthographic module supporting visual structural analysis; the left frontal regions and pre-supplementary motor area implemented sequential integration and executive control; and the bilateral insula dynamically allocated cognitive resources. The convergence and stability of this network across tasks and age groups suggest it may constitute a supra-reading network—a higher-order, domain-general architecture that transcends reading per se, flexibly reusing circuits originally supporting perception, sequencing, and cognitive control to coordinate multi-level linguistic integration. Together, these findings provide a unified and developmentally adaptive neural framework for reading in a morpho-syllabic language, providing neuroscience insights for reading development and literacy education.
BACKGROUND:Outdoor learning is widely used in educational practice, particularly for pupils who experience difficulties in conventional classrooms, yet little is known about how physiological and emotional regulation unfold across the school day in such contexts. Much prior outdoor education research has been interpreted through Attention Restoration Theory (ART) and Stress Reduction Theory (SRT), which frame nature primarily as a restorative stimulus facilitating a return to equilibrium. This study instead adopts an ecological-allostatic perspective, viewing regulation as anticipatory, context sensitive, and grounded in ongoing perception-action engagement with environmental affordances. PURPOSE:The study pursued four aims: (1) to examine physiological and affective response patterns during outdoor versus indoor lessons; (2) to interpret these responses using an ecological- allostatic framework; (3) to model regulation using an idiographic, dynamic time-series approach; and (4) to integrate within-person analyses with cautious nomothetic summaries to understand how pupils recalibrate across learning contexts. METHODS:Intensive longitudinal data were collected from adolescents with school-adjustment difficulties during full indoor and outdoor school days (approximately 100-150 three-minute epochs per pupil). Measures included heart period (HP), short-term heart-rate variability (RMSSD), and end-of-day positive and negative affect. Bayesian Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling (DSEM) was used to estimate person-specific short-horizon dynamics and context-related re-centering, preserving individual regulatory organization rather than relying on group averages. RESULTS:Outdoor lessons were associated with lower RMSSD (indicating greater autonomic mobilization), higher positive affect, and lower negative affect. Context-dependent re-centering was most clearly expressed at the tonic level (HP), whereas short-lag physiological dynamics showed minimal systematic differences across contexts, indicating preserved moment-to-moment regulatory organization. Affective differences reflected context-level shifts rather than dynamic co-fluctuation with physiology. CONCLUSION:Outdoor learning is associated with a pattern of mobilization without destabilization: increased physiological readiness for action co-occurring with positive emotional engagement. Idiographic DSEM offers a tractable and theoretically coherent approach for studying allostatic regulation in naturalistic educational settings and complements restoration-oriented interpretations based on ART and SRT.
This study examined the role of language and executive functions (EFs) as potential mediators of the relation between family socioeconomic status (SES) and Theory of Mind (ToM) in preschool and school-aged children. A total of 375 children aged 3 to 7 years completed assessments of ToM (false beliefs task), language abilities (vocabulary, syntax, and novel word learning), and EFs (inhibition and cognitive flexibility). Family SES was measured based on parental education and occupational status. Structural equation modeling revealed that language mediated the SES-ToM association, whereas EFs did not significantly contribute to this relation when language abilities were considered. When accounting for potential ceiling effects of the language task, we found no evidence that age moderated the mediation effect of language on the association between SES and ToM. These findings underscore the pivotal role of language abilities in shaping social-cognitive development and highlight the importance of designing targeted interventions that use language-based materials to support ToM, particularly for children from low-SES backgrounds.
Executive functions (EFs) are related to academic performance, but interventions designed to leverage EFs to improve academic outcomes have shown inconsistent results. Academic performance is also subject to layers of personal, social, task-relevant, and cultural contexts, all of which impact students’ EF engagement in any given task. The EF+Math Program explored the potential for EFs to positively impact math achievement by supporting inclusive research and development of EF learning approaches that are contextually embedded and attend to the needs of diverse students. Across a portfolio of projects, researchers, developers, and educators worked collaboratively to co-design and evaluate learning approaches for middle school mathematics classrooms. Here we share examples of our contextualized research, and our updated conceptualizations of EFs arising from shared insights across different contexts. We conclude with calls to action for continuing inclusive research and development to advance insights across, theory, assessment, and intervention in EF research.
BACKGROUND:Neuromyths-misconceptions arising from misinterpretations of neuroscientific findings-are widely endorsed by educators and students, including those in psychology. Their persistence has been linked to contextual, cognitive, and personality-related factors, but evidence is mixed, especially among psychology students. This study examined predictors of neuromyth endorsement in Argentine psychology undergraduates. OBJECTIVE:To identify contextual (neuroscience training, interest), personality (Need for Cognition; NFC), and cognitive (Cognitive Reflection Test; CRT) predictors of neuromyth beliefs. METHODS:A convenience sample of 320 psychology students (82.5% women; M_age = 27.39 years) completed online measures assessing neuromyth endorsement, general brain knowledge, NFC, CRT, and self-reported neuroscience training and interest. Spearman correlations and hierarchical regressions were conducted to examine associations and predictive effects. RESULTS:Participants endorsed 41.22% of neuromyths on average, with learning styles (76.25%) and sensory-rich environments benefits (74.37%) being the most accepted. CRT scores negatively predicted neuromyth endorsement (β = -.175, p < .001), whereas the NFC "enjoyment of thinking" factor positively predicted endorsement (β = 0.145, p = .024). Age also showed a positive effect (β = 0.175, p = .002). Neuroscience interest, courses taken, and general brain knowledge did not predict neuromyth acceptance, although they were positively associated with neuroscience knowledge. CONCLUSIONS:Analytical thinking emerged as the strongest protective factor against neuromyths, while enjoyment of thinking unexpectedly predicted higher endorsement, possibly reflecting exposure to low-quality sources of information and/or Dunning-Kruger effects. Factual neuroscience knowledge and training did not decrease neuromyth endorsement, underscoring the importance of fostering critical thinking skills within psychology education.
BACKGROUND:Academic stress affects emotional regulation and autonomic function, influencing students' well-being and academic performance. While sex- and discipline-related differences have been studied separately, their combined psychophysiological effects remain underexplored. This study examines how sex and academic discipline shape emotional and autonomic responses to stress and their relationship with academic outcomes. METHODS:A cross-sectional study included 680 Colombian university students (71.3% women; 81.6% psychology, 18.4% engineering). The psychology group included 71.2% women and 28.8% men, while the engineering group comprised 72.0% women and 28.0% men. Acute stress was measured with the STAI-S and CSAI-2R, autonomic regulation via short-term HRV, and academic performance through a discipline-specific standardized GPA test. Non-parametric tests and multiple regressions with Benjamini-Hochberg correction were applied. RESULTS:Female students reported higher cognitive (M = 14.38), somatic (M = 18.08), and state anxiety (M = 26.34), as well as higher GPA (M = 4.07), than males (adjusted p values ≤ 0.002). Engineering students showed greater physiological activation (heart rate: 98.20 vs. 91.54; adjusted p = 0.013) but similar anxiety levels. HRV differences between disciplines were non-significant after correction. Self-confidence (β = 0.15, p = 0.001) and state anxiety (β = 0.10, p = 0.047) positively predicted GPA. Somatic anxiety negatively impacted academic performance in males only (β = -0.21, p = 0.030). CONCLUSION:Findings reveal discipline- and sex-specific stress reactivity patterns. While self-confidence and moderate anxiety appear adaptive, somatic anxiety may impair performance in male students. These findings suggest that neuroeducational and sex-sensitive interventions targeting stress regulation may be useful in higher education.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS:Interpersonal synchronization is a key component of effective teaching and learning, but little is known about how it differs between face-to-face and remote settings. This study investigates interpersonal synchronization in face-to-face (FTF) versus remote learning (RL) environments through electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiography (ECG) hyperscanning. METHODS:Eight groups of 3 students and 1 lecturer (N = 32) engaged in both conditions, consisting of a baseline, a 20-minute lecture, and a 20-minute interactive task. Neural synchronization was assessed using inter-individual Euclidean Distance (EuDist) across five EEG frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma). Cardiac synchronization was assessed via intersubject correlation of heart rate (ISCHR). Learning outcomes and perception were measured through a series of self-report measures and validated questionnaires. RESULTS:Results revealed a modest but significant effect of learning condition across all EEG bands, with significantly lower EuDist values in the FTF condition compared to RL, indicating higher inter-individual neural alignment when participants were physically co-present. Additionally, task-specific effects emerged in delta, theta, beta, and gamma bands, with interactive tasks generally associated with lower dissimilarity. Furthermore, ISCHR was significantly higher in the FTF condition compared to the RL condition, while no significant task-specific differences emerged. Self-report measures further indicated higher perceived interpersonal closeness and lesson satisfaction in the FTF condition, while learning outcomes remained stable across modalities. CONCLUSION:These findings demonstrate that physical co-presence enhances both cortical and autonomic synchronization during instruction, particularly under dialogic conditions, and underscore the role of embodied interaction in promoting shared cognitive and affective engagement in educational contexts.
Background: Sound is a core component of digital games, and its integration is assumed to support learning, motivation, and positive emotions. However, empirical evidence on the role of sound in educational video games remains limited, particularly in narrative-driven educational adventure games such as digital history games. Methods: In a laboratory experiment, university students (N = 111) either played an educational history video game with sound (ambient audio, character voices, and narrated codex entries providing additional historical information) or without sound. Post-test measures assessed factual knowledge, triggered and maintained situational interest, and academic emotions (enjoyment and boredom). Engagement with optional supplemental historical information provided through in-game codex entries was measured using behavioural log data. Group differences were analysed using one-way analyses of covariance, controlling for relevant pre-test variables. Results: Participants in the sound condition did not score significantly higher on the knowledge test than those in the no-sound condition. Likewise, no statistically significant differences emerged in situational interest, enjoyment, boredom, or codex engagement between conditions. Additional analyses indicated that participants’ interactions with codex entries positively predicted knowledge test performance, indicating that voluntary engagement with supplemental content contributed to learning. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the presence of sound alone may not enhance academic outcomes in a narrative-driven educational video game. Additionally, our findings indicate that learning outcomes depended strongly on learners’ engagement with in-game codex entries. Overall, our results on the inclusion of sound highlight the importance of examining specific design features within educational history video games.
Causal studies show that brain networks of self-control can be changed by various forms of learning and stimulation. One mechanism of these changes is improved connectivity in the brain networks related to control. Evidence suggests that authoritarian contriol is largely supported by people with regidity of thought, but whether rigidity is caused by authoritarianism is not known. In this paper we hypothesize that authoritarianism can reduce the opportunity for conflict resolution that is an important mechanism for improved connectivity in control networks. Evidence suggests that reduced connectivity results in impairment in cognitive and emotional control resulting in likely reduction in IQ, less ability to control emotions and to resolve conflict between competing thoughts and actions. To test our hypothesis of a causal link to authoritarianism one could provide evidence preferable before and after authoritarian governments are implemented that there is a predicted loss of of abilty to control conflict, educational attainment or IQ by the relevant population. Tests of education attainment or IQ would also have alternative reasons such as changes in the educational system or reduced income. This paper proved evidence of a possible mechanism by which the brain could change under authoritarian rule and a hypothesis that requires further tests that authoritarian leaders can cause a loss of self-control in brains of both developing individuals and adults living in their countries.
Background Neuroscientific advances applied to education are often susceptible to misinterpretation by teaching professionals. However, the accuracy of neuromyths can change as neuroscientific research advances. The goals of this study were to identify teachers’ beliefs about brain functioning, as well as to examine predictors of scientifically unsupported beliefs and to examine the degree of alignment between teachers’ responses and experts’ perspectives. Method After a review of the literature, the 58-item Neurobeliefs in Education Questionnaire (NEQ) was created and administered to nine neuroeducation experts and 1,139 teachers from Argentina and other Latin American countries (86.1% women). Results Teachers demonstrated high variability in their beliefs about brain functioning, with only 16% of items showing strong agreement among them and 43% showing strong disagreement. In contrast, neuroeducation experts showed greater internal consensus, especially on items supported by strong scientific evidence. When comparing the two groups, 60% of items revealed disagreement, with over a third showing large discrepancies driven by higher teacher endorsement of well-established neuromyths. A regression revealed that preschool teachers and those who had received neuroscience instruction as part of their academic degrees were more likely to endorse neuromyths, while university-level educators and those with neuroscience training outside their degree programs were significantly less likely to do so. Conclusion The results support that continuous training in neuroscience and psychology may be a protective factor against endorsement of neuromyths among teachers in Latin America.
Background This study is the first to examine the prevalence of neuromyth beliefs among parents of primary school students in Turkey, the sources of these beliefs, their relationship with educational level, and their predictive effect on attitudes toward neuroscience and purchase intentions. Method A total of 311 Turkish parents with children in primary school participated in the study. The prevalence of parents' neuromyth beliefs, their sources (e.g., TV news, social media), attitudes toward neuroscience, and purchase intentions for brain development products were measured using scales. Frequency analyses, simple linear regression analysis, and multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data. Results The analyses revealed that neuromyth beliefs are prevalent among Turkish parents and that TV news and social media are the main sources of these beliefs. Statistical analyses showed that neuromyth belief levels decreased significantly as parents' education level increased. Furthermore, regression analysis revealed that belief in neuromyths significantly predicted attitudes toward neuroscience. Conclusion This study shows that parents' belief in neuromyths is widespread in the Turkish context and is disseminated particularly through popular media channels. The fact that belief in neuromyths positively predicts attitudes toward neuroscience indicates that parents are interested in neuroscientific topics, albeit with misconceptions. These results suggest that science-based awareness campaigns targeting parents should consider differences in media use and educational levels.
The scientific system currently faces several challenges, such as paper mills, citation manipulation, and discussions about reforming the peer review process. In this opinion paper, I argue that an additional, largely overlooked problem is emerging: a sharp increase in annual manuscript submissions that exceeds editors’ and reviewers’ capacity to evaluate scientific work with sufficient care. Based on personal observations and conversations conducted in 2025, I describe a substantial rise in submissions to individual journals, despite the rapid emergence of new journals. I outline several factors that have accelerated the pace of behavioral science research, including advances in the automation of behavioral science, the growing availability of large real-world datasets, and the widespread adoption of large language models for writing manuscripts. I argue that the current submission crisis is driven primarily by the latter, resulting in a growing number of polished-looking submissions that provide little empirical evidence and place increasing strain on editors and reviewers. I discuss the implications of rising submission volumes for editors, reviewers, and early-career researchers and distinguish between a present submission crisis characterized by superficial contributions and a potential future crisis driven by actually accelerated scientific progress due to the automation of behavioral science. I hope that this opinion paper will spark discussions and research on this topic, eventually providing new solutions, such as the adoption of artificial intelligence tools to support workflows for editors and reviewers.
