This pilot study investigates the relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and early dropout in a largely underexplored professional online learning context. Forty-two professionals (N = 42) enrolled in a four-week course delivered via a workplace Learning Experience Platform (LXP) supporting self-directed, adaptive learning pathways. SRL was measured using self-reports and behavioural trace data collected during the first week. A dual-method analytic approach was employed: top-down models (logistic regression and decision trees) tested predefined SRL predictors, while bottom-up methods (hierarchical clustering and process mining) uncovered emergent learner profiles without prior assumptions. Trace-based SRL indicators, particularly the number of unique actions on the platform, time spent during week one, participation in the forum, and completion of an action plan, were significantly stronger predictors of dropout (p < .05) than self-reports, where only the goal-setting subscale was significant. Despite the small sample size limiting generalisability, the study demonstrates that early behavioural engagement patterns can reliably predict learner persistence, often outperforming self-reported SRL measures. These findings advance our understanding of SRL in professional online learning environments and provide a replicable analytic framework for integrating trace data and surveys. By identifying actionable SRL behaviours linked to course completion, this study contributes toward the development of adaptive workplace learning systems capable of detecting and mitigating early disengagement in real time.
There are empirical studies on both the cognitive and performative outcomes of learning via VR and the affective aspects of the use of VR in learning. Studies on affective outcomes in relation to the learning object, such as the attitude towards it or the atmospheric effect of a visited environment on the students, are still pending. This desideratum of educational research is addressed in this paper by comparing the auratic experience elicited by physical church visits with that elicited by virtual church visits via Head Monted Displays (HDMs). Therefore, the study applied an experimental design with two points of measurement and two treatments. Auratic experience was operationalized as both mystical experience and flow, while flow was structured according to the two dimensions of control and concentration. The participants were students of religious education (N = 52). In both virtual and physical exploration, there is hardly any mystical experience to be measured. However, it is the physical visit that stimulates a more pronounced experience than the virtual visit. However, the auratic experience in the given experiment is sensitive to the time of measurement: switching from virtual to physical exploration seems to stimulate an increase in the mystical experience, while switching from physical to virtual exploration somehow attenuates this experience. This result and the limitations of the study are discussed.
Classrooms are becoming increasingly digital. One novel digital technology that might enter classrooms soon is eye tracking. This is a method to estimate a person’s gaze direction and infer the point of visual attention. This technology has already provided insights into how students process computer-based instructional material. Moreover, it has been used to enhance pre-recorded video instruction, by showing learners where the teacher is looking, which made it easier for learners to follow and learn from the teacher (i.e., eye movement modeling examples). Thus far, this was only implemented in pre-recorded videos. In the current paper, we present a proof-of-concept, with a focus on the technical set-up, that shows how this approach can also be used in real time, during teaching. We recorded the eye movements of a teacher giving a PowerPoint presentation and displayed his eye-movements in real-time to students who were present in the same classroom. Students saw one of three different versions of the presentation: The PowerPoint only (1), the PowerPoint with an overlay of the teacher’s eye movements as a circle (2) or as an inversed blurring of the material (3). Eye movement displays significantly affected how closely students followed the teacher’s gaze, but had no impact on learning. We discuss open research questions and possible future applications in educational practice.
The present study addresses a critical and underexplored area in learning research: how learners conceptualize scientists beyond the natural sciences. While previous studies have extensively examined learners' perceptions of natural scientists, little is known about their understanding of social and educational scientists – fields often overlooked as scientific domains and not associated with competence. Given the potential influence of such conceptions on learners’ academic engagement, study choices, and career aspirations, the present interview study provides an in-depth exploration of learners’ conceptions of the work and personal characteristics of educational scientists. The results of a qualitative content analysis show that the predominant image of the educational scientist among learners refers to a pedagogical practitioner who needs interpersonal skills to help children and families in educational and social service institutions. An additional typological content analysis reveals that learners who associate educational scientists with scientific activities and tasks tend to have uncertain, diffuse, and inaccurate ideas about the actual nature of this scientific work, putting into question whether this work can really be called research and imagining that educational scientists just sit together and think. Our findings also suggest that such misconceptions are rooted in learners’ school experiences. These findings point to a significant gap in the understanding of educational scientists and its potential consequences for engagement with the social sciences. This study emphasizes the need for targeted interventions to foster accurate conceptions about educational scientists, which ultimately could enhance learners’ appreciation of the social sciences and support more informed academic and career choices.
This study explored how learners engage in shared control in math in Adaptive Learning Technologies (ALT). In shared control, learners adjust task difficulty (easy, medium, or hard), while the ALT selects tasks based on performance. These adjustments to task difficulty influence the probability of solving the next task correctly. This study aimed to understand (1) differences in how learners use shared control and (2) how this relates to general math ability, regulation of practice behaviour (number of finished problems and accuracy), and learning outcomes. In this exploratory study, 98 grade 5 learners practiced three math topics using an ALT combined with an app, including personalised visualisations of learners’ real-time progress on the math topics and shared control selection options. Results showed four clusters reflecting differences in learners’ use of shared control in quantity and direction of task difficulty changes: learners making no changes (cluster 1), learners making some changes preferring hard difficulty (cluster 2) or easy difficulty (cluster 3), and learners who frequently changed across all task difficulties (cluster 4). Shared control was related to general math ability and influenced learners’ regulation of practice behaviour. Although a comparison with the ALT control was absent, learners seem to choose task difficulties in line with their needs and benefit from these choices, resulting in learning gain. From a self-regulated learning perspective, this indicated how learners engaged in regulation and were aware of their needs.
Investigations into the prevalence of careless responding (CR) in online student learning survey research are scarce, and little to no information is present about the impact on data quality. This study illustrates how an unobtrusive post hoc method of CR detection can be applied using four indices, which can be calculated in most student learning surveys. By applying latent profile analyses in an exemplary sample of 1,111 first-year university students, different responder profiles are identified, showing the presence of careful and careless responder profiles. The study further examines the impact of CR on data quality, raising concerns about reliability and validity. The study calls for more attention to the presence of CR when analysing data in online student learning survey research. CR detection is also valuable for practice, specifically when online survey-based feedback is provided to learners with more questionable responding behaviour.
Multimodal data analysis and validation based on streams from state-of-the-art sensor technology such as eye-tracking or emotion recognition using the Facial Action Coding System (FACTs) with deep learning allows educational researchers to study multifaceted learning and problem-solving processes and to improve educational experiences. This study aims to investigate the correlation between two continuous sensor streams, pupil diameter as an indicator of cognitive workload and FACTs with deep learning as an indicator of emotional arousal (RQ 1a), specifically for epochs of high, medium, and low arousal (RQ 1b). Furthermore, the time lag between emotional arousal and pupil diameter data will be analyzed (RQ 2). 28 participants worked on three cognitively demanding and emotionally engaging everyday moral dilemmas while eye-tracking and emotion recognition data were collected. The data were pre-processed in Phyton (synchronization, blink control, downsampling) and analyzed using correlation analysis and Granger causality tests. The results show negative and statistically significant correlations between the data streams for emotional arousal and pupil diameter. However, the correlation is negative and significant only for epochs of high arousal, while positive but non-significant relationships were found for epochs of medium or low arousal. The average time lag for the relationship between arousal and pupil diameter was 2.8 ms. In contrast to previous findings without a multimodal approach suggesting a positive correlation between the constructs, the results contribute to the state of research by highlighting the importance of multimodal data validation and research on convergent vagility. Future research should consider emotional regulation strategies and emotional valence.
There is a growing interest in developing gamified learning solutions to address educational challenges. However, learning is highly influenced by the conditions in which it takes place (e.g., does gamified learning in a laboratory setting replicate the outcomes of gamified learning online at home?). Hence, it is crucial to understand the boundary conditions of different learning contexts to effectively implement gamified interventions that provide optimal learner support. This work contributes to such an understanding by assessing how general contextual aspects of three studies on gamified learning influence cognitive learning and motivational outcomes. Therefore, we re-examined the results of two earlier published online studies (Study 1: n=285; Study 2: n=61) and compared the results to a recently conducted laboratory study (Study 3: n=121), all of which employed the same associative learning task. Comparing results through a Bayesian lens, we find that motivational outcomes induced by gamification differ substantially between contexts. In contrast, cognitive learning outcomes seem comparatively robust across different contextual factors, with some indication of subtle influences in agreement with cognitive learning theories. Implications are discussed for future empirical research on learning, highlighting how a better understanding of boundary conditions of gamified learning interventions could open perspectives for context-aware educational interventions.
The concept of number emerges from the interaction of psychological, behavioral, and material elements of numerical cognition, collapsing the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete." This dual nature is evident in the Inca numerical system, where tools like the yupana integrate abstract numerical concepts with concrete materials. The Yupana Inka Tawa Pukllay (YITP), a Peruvian arithmetic method, enhances mathematical and visual-spatial skills through tile-based board games. While effective with children, its impact on university students is unexplored. This research used eye tracking to study gaze and attention during YITP operations, comparing novices and experts. Eight university students and two experts participated, with eye-tracking data and scatter plot (dispersion plot) analyses collected using Tobii Pro Glasses. The study introduced the Variation Ratio Tokens (VRT) metric to assess visual attention efficiency, showing significant improvements in VRT dispersion and attention during the arithmetic learning process. These findings suggest YITP's potential in higher education for improving cognitive processes and arithmetic performance, laying a foundation for future research and innovative educational practices. This work establishes a foundation for cross-cultural cognitive studies and innovative STEM education approaches leveraging ancestral knowledge systems.
This research examines students' emotional states during a virtual course at a Finnish university. The mixed methods study drew on students' self-reported commitment, self-efficacy, experienced emotions, and open-ended descriptions related to their emotions. The sample consisted of 85 students. Data were collected at nine measurement points during a half semester foundation course in statistics. Through latent profile analysis (LPA), we identified five distinct learner profiles described as the “Average”, “Struggling”, “Thriving”, “Victorious”, and “Determined”, and analyzed how they differ based on students’ gender, form of course implementation, previous attempts at the same course, and performance. Female students dominated in the “Average”, “Determined”, “Struggling”, and” Victorious” profiles. In all profiles, students mainly chose the blended learning implementation. In the “Struggling” profile, there were more students who had failed or had incomplete previous attempts at the course compared to other profiles. The students in the “Victorious” and “Thriving” profiles had the best exam results. The longitudinal design revealed distinct study experiences amongst the five profiles and pinpointed that most of the challenges took place in the middle of the course. The study contributes with understanding of the emotional challenges and challenges related to commitment- and self-efficacy in students’ learning process that could go unnoticed with fewer measurement points. The multi-measurement point approach along with the identification of emotion profiles makes a novel contribution to the field.
GenAI (Generative Artificial Intelligence) will have a growing role within formal education. What should that role be? How do we treat GenAIs as an opportunity to enhance and reenergise teaching and learning? This position paper suggests that answers to these questions should start with our foundational psychological theories about what students need to function and develop well. This position article outlines how psychological needs theory, focusing on students' basic psychological needs for competence and relatedness might be a path forward. Teacher behavior supporting these psychological needs (i.e., involvement and structure), which have established relationships with learning outcomes, are used as a base for assessing the potential roles of human and AI instructors. A balanced approach that draws on the strengths of each instructor is suggested as a possible way forward for research and practice in this area. Co-piloting the educational ship forward could herald a brighter future for students across educational levels and contexts.
Teachers play a key role in promoting flexible mathematical thinking in society. There is a growing need to develop better methods for both pre- and in-service teacher training, but not enough is so far understood about what knowledge and skills teachers use in practical teaching situations. The means for investigating this are few. A new analytic framework was developed using abductive content analysis to investigate signs of script restructuring and construction as they appear in teachers' written reflections reporting their experiences in applying novel methods in their classrooms. Scripts are mental knowledge structures combining formal professional knowledge and the knowledge teachers use in practical situations with representations, assessments, and predictions of different classroom events. Scripts enable teachers to make (rapid) snap decisions to structure their teaching and manage classrooms to facilitate students' attention towards objectives, activities, and information that support learning. In this multiple case qualitative study, six teachers enrolled on the “Flexible and Adaptive Arithmetic Skills in Primary School” course, part of the JoMa (Towards Flexible Mathematics) in-service training program, teaching assignment and end-of-course reflections were investigated in depth. The goal was to advance the application of script theory to the study of teachers' actions and thinking as they engage in teaching intended to promote flexible mathematical thinking. The results suggest that signs of script restructuring and construction can be investigated post-hoc from textual accounts, scripts may have a considerable influence on teachers’ actions and thinking, and by engaging in teaching practice in real-life settings and reflecting on these accumulating experiences, processes leading to script development may be initiated. The results suggest that the analytic framework developed is functional and robust, paving the way for future investigations with larger samples. This study provided a more profound understanding of how online in-service education can support teachers to develop scripts supporting their competences to teach mathematical flexibility.
Despite recognising momentary challenges while learning, collaborative groups do not necessarily regulate and adapt their learning process according to the demands. Various online measures have recently been explored to unobtrusively study engagement and adaptation in collaborative learning (CL), as it occurs in the classroom. For example, physiological synchrony derived from electrodermal activity (EDA) has been a prominent reflector of momentary engagement in CL. However, how physiological synchrony relates to students’ views about CL, regulation of learning, and performance remains unclear. This study investigates how momentary measures of physiological synchrony, students’ perceived value of CL, and regulation of learning, align and further relate to group performance. The participants were 94 students attending a physics course consisting of four 90-minute lessons and a collaborative exam. Each lesson included a CL task. At the beginning and end of each session, students reported their perceived value of CL. Students’ EDA was recorded to derive physiological synchrony. Co-regulation (CoRL) and socially shared regulation (SSRL) were coded from the video. Results suggest that when groups show higher physiological synchrony, they perceive their CL as less valuable and tend to perform worse in collaborative exams. It seems that self-reports on the value of CL, rather than physiological synchrony, may better reflect the regulation of CL. Interestingly, the association patterns for CoRL and SSRL differed, as frequent CoRL was linked to the less valued CL, while SSRL tended towards a positive relation. The study demonstrates the complex and multidimensional role of momentary engagement in CL.
Previous research suggests connections between peer relationships and children’s engagement and learning within the classroom. However few studies have explored these connections in detail or considered the possible processes that may begin to explain the linkages. This study collected systematic data from different respondents within primary school settings to help clarify the role of peers in classroom engagement and learning. Over 800 pupils based in English primary schools were involved in a multi-method study. Peer-sociometric questionnaires provided measures of academic peer relations, informal-social peer relations, such as being accepted as a work partner and liked as a person to play with, playground group centrality and leadership. Self-report questionnaires provided data on school engagement, disengagement, and disaffection. Science attainment data were collected at the start and end of the year. Momentary behavioural engagement was observed in classrooms for a subsample of pupils who were also rated by their teachers in terms of their attention and behaviour in class. Findings revealed small to moderate associations between peer relations measures, multiple measures of school and classroom engagement, attainment, and progress. Multiple regressions examined peer relations measures relative to momentary, classroom and school engagement and learning outcomes. Findings highlight important overlaps and differences in the predictors of different types of engagement. They also highlight the variety of ways in which peer relationships, whether academically or socially focused, may have different implications for engagement at momentary, classroom, and school levels. Findings indicate that academic peer acceptance is predictive of engagement at the different levels and science attainment. However, informal-social peer relations were more highly connected with class disruption, school disengagement and disaffection and were negative predictors of attainment and progress over the year. This suggests different pathways for children with different types of relationships with peers relative to engagement and adjustment highlighting complex connections between social and academic life in school.
This study used systematic observation to test the direct and moderating effects of class size on children’s momentary behavioural engagement in learning. Data were collected with 632 children (50.6% girls) in 121 classrooms in 92 schools recruited into the Children’s School Lives national cohort study of Irish primary schooling. The Observational and Research Classroom Learning Evaluation (ORACLE) systematic observation tool was used to observe individual children’s behaviour at 30-seconds intervals across a five-minute period in ordinary lessons of English, mathematics, science and Irish. Multilevel path models identified that behavioural engagement was higher in smaller classes and behavioural disengagement was higher in larger classes. Class size also moderated the impact of several individual differences and classroom composition factors on momentary behavioural engagement. For example, smaller classrooms protected lower ability children from disengaging whereas higher ability children were more likely to stay engaged in larger classes compared to lower ability children. Implications for research, practice and policy are discussed.
This commentary reviews the five papers featured in this special issue, which foster a cross-disciplinary discussion on momentary engagement (ME). The papers represent diverse theoretical perspectives and address key research questions central to understanding students’ ME. The commentary approaches each paper through the lens of conceptual change, focusing on the learning processes needed when the information to be acquired is inconsistent with the existing theoretical frameworks. Methodological challenges in measuring ME within the context of conceptual change are explored, moving beyond traditional acquisition type of learning. The variation in quality and depth of momentary engagement is also discussed, distinguishing between different modes of active learning and engagement. Further attention is given to the complex, dual role of factors such as learner characteristics, prior knowledge, and epistemic beliefs in shaping ME, especially in domains requiring radical reorganization of initial beliefs. Finally, the potential for constructing an integrated model of ME is discussed, in alignment with the holistic approach to ME implied by the papers in this issue. The author emphasizes the importance of studying ME’s interconnected components within both the individual and the context, employing varied methodologies and accounting for different learning types. The implications of integrating different theoretical frameworks are discussed in relation to developing interventions aimed at enhancing students’ ME in the classroom context.
Collaborative problem solving (CPS) has been shown to both engage and benefit students’ learning of mathematics. However, there is evidence that group work is not always easy to facilitate, in part because educators lack details about learners’ engagement during group work: the processes of problem solving involved, and how these are engaged. In this exploratory study, we focused on these processes in the moments of related math activity, or math moments, engaged by two groups of interested, urban, middle-school aged students during four sessions of work in the Virtual Math Teams (VMT) environment. We examined three phases of their problem solving: Exploring, Constructing, and Checking. In addition, to further describe the students’ cognitive and behavioral engagement, we considered both the process of students' use of executive functions (EF), during problem solving, termed executive functions in practice (EFP), as well as the stage of CPS (Participation, Cooperation, and Collaboration), during phases of problem solving. We learned that the relation between each phase of problem solving, categories of EFP, and stages of CPS vary; for example, the problem-solving phase of Exploring was found to have a more positive effect on EFP and CPS than either Constructing or Checking. Implications for educational practice, and next steps for related research are described.
In recent years, there has been a strong call for more fine-grained analyses of student engagement to better capture its nature as a situated, momentary phenomenon. This special issue aims to promote cross-disciplinary discussions about the complex processes involved in students’ momentary engagement and learning situated in classroom contexts. Momentary engagement is conceptualized as students’ involvement with learning activities over short time intervals. We begin by presenting definitional, conceptual, and methodological reflections on the construct of momentary engagement, highlighting how moment-to-moment analyses can deepen our understanding of how engagement unfolds in complex, dynamic learning environments. Next, we discuss the need for a holistic and multidisciplinary perspective to foster an integrative understanding of contexts and conditions under which students engage in academic tasks. Finally, we provide a brief overview of the papers in this special issue, emphasising their diverse methodological approaches to capturing students’ momentary engagement and summarizing their main results that offer practical insights on supporting engagement. Each contribution reflects the efforts of a multidisciplinary team who have studied students’ momentary engagement and learning across various contexts, combining insights and identifying cross-disciplinary synergies in theory and method. The authors integrate perspectives from various fields of research, including motivation, emotion, self-regulation, engagement, social interaction and conceptual change. Their research draws on student samples from the United States, Finland, Ireland, and the United Kingdom.
Engagement can be situative and, when it occurs, a number of experiences will co-occur. The present study examined the co-occurred experiences of optimal learning moments (OLM), a type of situated engagement, using the novel network analysis and including data from two countries: Finland and the US. Both samples were from high schools and were measured using the experience sampling method. The Finnish sample consisted of 282 students (age = 15-16) and was assessed in science lessons only. The US sample consisted of 533 students at the same age. Co-occurrence network analysis showed that, when OLM occurred, feelings of concentration, success, in control, and meeting self and others’ expectations appeared frequently. These results were highly consistent between Finnish and US science classrooms. Further analysis found optimal learning moments were mutually reinforced by the creative experiences, feelings of competitiveness and pride, and the attitudes toward science practices. As a result, an updated optimal learning moment framework was proposed to understand its enhancers, detractors, accelerants, and outcomes in science learning situations. This provides new theoretical accounts regarding the co-occurring experiences of optimal learning moments.
We report a study examining, for the first time, the effectiveness of engagement in dialogic argumentation in relation to its ability to promote integration of multiple source perspectives in an argumentive writing task after reading controversial multiple texts. Sixty-four primary school students engaged in a dialog-based intervention aiming to support them to learn to argue. Participants’ argument skills have been improved and transferred to a writing task completed after reading novel multiple texts on new, non-intervention, topics. In particular, the experimental group participants showed gains in their ability to integrate multiple source perspectives in an argumentive writing task after reading controversial multiple texts, compared with a control group which engaged in business-as-usual school curriculum. Microgenetic data revealed a progressive development of experimental participants’ integration skill throughout their engagement in the argumentive discourse activity. The findings have important educational implications. They show that learning to argue by engaging in dialogic argumentation is a promising pathway for supporting the ability to integrate multiple source perspectives after reading controversial multiple texts.
