This two-part special issue of the Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation was written to showcase new scholarship and innovative coaching practices in schools. Articles have been grouped into two separate and complementary sections based on prominent themes that emerged: Section 1: Coaching Implementation, Adaptation, and Contextual Responsiveness and Section 2: Evaluating Coaching through The Lenses of Dosage, Fidelity, and Impact. In this introduction to the first section of the special issue, we offer a synthesis of five articles that communicate insights into the importance of coaching implementation and context, or how coaching is enacted, tailored, or maintained in different settings and with different populations.
Over the last 25 years, school psychology has made improvements in developing and implementing more culturally responsive school-based practices through updated ethical guidelines, training curricula, and an increase in peer-reviewed publications focusing on social justice. We sought to explore how researchers have addressed Ingraham's call to action in 2000 for school-based consultation research to focus on how to effectively support culturally and linguistically diverse students. Through a systematic literature review using a consensual qualitative approach, we coded 17 articles that meaningfully cited Ingraham's seminal article on the Multicultural School Consultation (MSC) Framework. Focusing on Component 3 of the MSC framework, Cultural Variations in the Consultation Constellation, we found that in the past 25 years, school psychology has answered the call as it relates to considerations of diversity in scholarly works, cultural context within consultation, issues related to the application of consultation practices within schools, and implications for future empirical research. However, scholarship is still lacking a clear, consistent method for measuring the saliency of cultural identities in the consultation triad (i.e. consultant, consultee, and client) and how this saliency affects consultation practice, especially as this influence relates to intersectionality. We present our systematic literature review findings and provide an updated call to action for school-based consultation researchers to focus on how incorporating intersecting identities can enhance the use of the MSC framework.
BEST in CLASS-PK is an evidence-based intervention for children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. It supports early care and education teachers' delivery of Tier 2 behavioral supports through training on key instructional practices. To date, BEST in CLASS-PK has only been studied in the context of efficacy trials where university-based staff, trained and employed by program developers, provide direct coaching to participating teachers under optimal conditions. The current project is a replication trial, where BEST in CLASS-PK was evaluated under real-world conditions that required participating programs to use their existing coach infrastructure. At the end of study Years 1 and 2, researchers facilitated 1-hour focus groups with center-based coaches (n = 14). Researchers also completed focus groups with site lead coaches (n = 4) who supported center-based coaches. Data were analyzed using thematic analyses (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Findings were applied to the PRISM implementation science framework to understand the relation between contextual factors and program implementation. Staff perceived that BEST in CLASS-PK enhanced the classroom environment for all children and provided tangible resources for teachers. Organizational shortfalls in staffing, competing priorities, and limited involvement of co-teachers created barriers in responding to children's behavioral and instructional needs. Participants asserted that routine feedback sessions with coach colleagues and supervisors were key to sustained implementation and that BEST in CLASS-PK fit well with other early care and education initiatives. Environmental factors, from pandemic recovery and catastrophic weather events to sociopolitical barriers to participation, hampered uptake of the program.
School safety is a top priority for school districts across the United States. For decades, researchers and practitioners have sought the most effective ways to address violence concerns. In 2023, Florida began training school-based threat management teams (SBTMTs) in a new threat management model: The Florida Harm Prevention and Threat Management Model. One challenge arising from implementing new practices and procedures is ensuring that school staff are equipped to apply the newly acquired knowledge and skills effectively. This article outlines the conceptual development process and novel application of an evidence-based coaching model, Practice-Based Coaching (PBC), rooted within an implementation science framework and designed to be integrated alongside threat management procedures in school settings. Researchers conducted focus group interviews with three middle school-based threat management teams and the district mental health clinician coaching team to gather feedback on the pilot implementation of PBC for SBTMTs process for further development. Qualitative analysis of the focus group interview results highlight the importance of gathering data through a team needs assessment and the benefits of ongoing feedback from a collaborative partnership with district-level mental health clinician coaches. Implications and directions for future model development are discussed.
This study examined the impact of a yearlong, in-school consultation model designed to build educator capability in inclusive education. The model involved ongoing, collaborative consultation between school-based educators and an external specialist in inclusive education, with the aim of supporting teachers and education support staff to identify and address barriers to participation and learning for all students. Consultation was embedded within educators' daily practice through regular classroom observations, joint problem-solving, modeling of strategies, and feedback cycles. Outcomes were assessed in terms of changes in educator attitudes toward inclusive education and their observed use of inclusive practices over the course of the program. Findings contribute to the consultation literature by demonstrating how sustained, school-embedded professional learning can strengthen the implementation of inclusive teaching practices, even when attitudes remain relatively stable.
School psychologists have an ethical responsibility to deliver direct and indirect services that meet the needs of increasingly diverse U.S. youth while also working to address systemic inequities. As a core school psychology service, it is critical for consultation to evolve to explicitly integrate social justice values. Although scholars have articulated the potential for consultation as a tool for social justice, little is known about consultants' experiences related to social justice and consultation training and practice. The purpose of this study was to provide a current understanding of consultants' (N = 144) training, practices, beliefs, and confidence related to social justice-oriented consultation and related approaches. Findings indicated that participants received less training and felt less confident engaging in social justice-oriented consultation compared to related approaches. Thematic analysis findings highlighted key themes related to barriers and facilitators in employing social justice, systems-level and multicultural consultation in schools. Finally, results demonstrated relationships between consultants' training and their beliefs and confidence in using consultation as a tool for social justice. Implications for training, practice, and research are discussed.
A Coordination of Services Team (COST) is a model of interprofessional collaboration in which a diverse group of professionals coordinate efforts and resources to systematically promote well-being and identify, refer, assist, and monitor students in need of support. In this qualitative case study, we examined suggestions for establishing and implementing a COST based on insights from well-functioning COST members and county program leaders. Six group interviews were conducted with five schools' COSTs (N = 29) and one small group of county-level clinical supervisors (N = 3) in order to garner recommendations for the process of establishing and maintaining a COST. Findings indicated that experienced COST members recommended launching the team without delay and adjusting as needed, adapting the COST to fit the local context of the school, and prioritizing positive relationships among team members. Participants also recommended continuously seeking engagement and support from school administrators and teachers and measuring the success of a COST both through standardized data collection and through anecdotal evidence. This study provides a systematically derived description of the process of developing and implementing a COST, which may be transferable to teams aiming to establish or refine a COST system in their own schools.
Traumatic stress is common in school-aged youth, and its effects often manifest in classroom settings. However, teachers often do not receive sufficient preparation to manage their classrooms in a trauma-informed manner. Therefore, teacher coaching may be a promising avenue for strengthening teacher capacity in this area. This paper (a) describes the current state of youth traumatic stress, (b) discusses the role of teachers in supporting youth with or at risk for traumatic stress, and (c) presents a case demonstration of a trauma-informed adaptation of the Classroom Check-Up to illustrate how school-based coaching can be used to foster teacher uptake of trauma-informed classroom management practices. Practical implications and future research directions are discussed.
The purpose of this scoping review was twofold: To identify: (1) how researchers have measured structural and procedural fidelity components, and (2) what measurement methods and tools researchers have used in coaching-based professional development (PD). Thirty-nine studies of coaching-based PD for academic intervention for kindergarten to sixth-grade students were examined. Results showed that researchers measured few fidelity components (the median number in examined studies was two out of 10 possible components; the mean was 1.1 out of 10). Multi-dimensional approaches were not adopted in most studies, and procedural fidelity was rarely measured (the median number of procedural components used in examined studies was zero; the mean was 0.7 out of five). Most studies measured only adherence as part of structural fidelity, and teacher preparedness and use of instructional materials as part of procedural fidelity. Most studies used direct observation using a checklist to measure fidelity. Future explorations into the conceptualization and measurement of fidelity may lead to improved teacher implementation and student outcomes.
In the current study a school-based problem-solving team (SB PST) was trained to use the skill-by-treatment interaction (STI) framework to analyze academic difficulties of students. The effects were evaluated with three students in a multiple baseline across participants experimental design. The three participants were in second and third grade and received a small-group intervention that focused on phonics. One student did not generalize what was learned during intervention and was provided more practice reading the newly learned graphemes in connected text, one was not initially learning the skills and needed more instruction in phonemic awareness, and one needed additional modeling when learning the letter and letter-combination sounds. All three modifications increased intervention dosage in minutes per intervention session. There was a clear and strong effect after modifying the intervention with the STI analyses and all three students made progress at a level that matched criteria for growth. The STI framework seemed to be a viable approach to analyze problems within SB PSTs.
School psychologists are trained and willing to participate in systems-level consultation within educational settings to support multi-tiered systems of support implementation. However, recent research suggests school psychologists spend less time on systems-level consultation than desired. The purpose of this study was to investigate the barriers and facilitators to systems-level consultation using a qualitative research design. Fifteen school psychologists at various career stages and with differing levels of experience in systems-level consultation were interviewed. Initial and focused coding, along with constant comparative analysis, was used to analyze the transcripts. Barriers to systems-level consultation included heavy workload, teamwork problems, difficult attitudes, beliefs, and feelings, implementation challenges, data and instructional challenges, lack of resources, and role challenges. Facilitators of systems-level consultation included reasonable workload and expectations, effective teamwork, implementation readiness and fidelity, helpful resources, and the attitudes, behaviors, and skills of school psychologists. Implications for research and practice are shared.
Teachers play a vital role in promoting children's social-emotional and behavioral development through evidence-based practices (EBP). Research consistently demonstrates that school-based indirect service delivery (i.e. consultation or coaching) is a viable means for improving teachers' EBP implementation and concomitant student outcomes. That said, an important and often overlooked aspect of indirect service delivery is ensuring that teachers generalize EBPs learned through consultation and coaching. In particular, no meta-analysis has explored how school-based indirect service may be used to improve critical student outcomes via generalized teacher practices. Thus, the current study synthesized and summarized the extant literature examining the effects of indirect service promoting teacher EBPs on student generalization and target outcomes. Comprehensive search strategies (i.e. searching electronic databases, gray literature sources, and hand searching 15 relevant journals) yielded 1577 abstracts that were screened and reviewed for potential inclusion. In total, 11 single-case design studies that met inclusion criteria were meta-analyzed to evaluate the impacts of school-based consultation and coaching on student generalization and target outcomes. Findings revealed significant improvements for both student generalization (LRRi = 0.51) and target (LRRi = 0.71) outcomes. Additionally, the moderating impacts of student and classroom characteristics were explored across all child outcomes. Results also revealed that consultation and coaching significantly improved student social skills (LRRi = 0.47) and behavioral competence (LRRi = 0.70). Additionally, the impacts of consultation and coaching on student outcomes were particularly pronounced for students with disabilities and students receiving in Head Start settings. Future directions, limitations, and practical implications are discussed.
The School Counselor Consultation Self-Efficacy Scale (SCCSES) was developed to determine the levels of consultation self-efficacy of school counselors. The research involved a total of 942 school counselors (Female = 76.74%; Male = 23.25%) across four different study groups. Data analysis employed techniques such as Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Item Validity Analyses, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Criterion Validity Analysis, Test-Retest Reliability, and Internal Consistency Analysis. The findings revealed that the SCCSES comprises a 4-factor, 28-item structure, which includes the dimensions of cultural awareness, process, ethics, and communication. This model accounted for 64.21% of the total variance associated with consultation self-efficacy. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficients for the individual factors varied between .81 and.91, with the overall scale reliability found at.95. Test-retest reliability, assessed to provide additional evidence of SCCSES reliability, yielded a correlation of 87 between measurements taken three weeks apart. First and second level confirmatory factor analysis results confirmed the model-data fit. This study was conducted in T & uuml;rkiye, and the findings are specific to the Turkish context. In addition, the factor structure of the SCCSES was compared with those of similar consultation self-efficacy scales reported in the literature, highlighting both potentially shared (core) and culturally specific features of the construct. Further validation studies are needed to examine the scale's applicability across different cultural and educational systems.
Community coalitions often form as vehicles to support inclusive community change. Yet, community coalition work is complex, and intensive technical assistance (TA) is potentially cost- prohibitive to sustain. A comprehensive review suggests a data-informed approach with "just-enough" contact between coalition partners and technical assistance providers that integrates Motivational Interviewing into interactions may be effective. As a result, we developed and tested the Coalition Check-Up (CoCU), a cyclical 4-step TA model to support all kinds of community coalitions. The current study examines implementation fidelity of the CoCU TA model, including its dosage, adherence to utilizing the data-informed tools, and quality by investigating the degree to which Motivational Interviewing skills were integrated into TA provider - coalition leader interactions. Thirty-two coalitions participated in this study. All coalitions received CoCU TA. Data from meeting recordings was coded with the MITI and data reported by TA providers that described TA provider interactions with coalition leaders and coalitions were used in this study. We found that coalitions received a high dosage of the CoCU TA model. The data tools were used with a high level of adherence, and MI behaviors were integrated at a modest to strong level. This novel study suggests applicability of MI in additional non-therapeutic contexts.
Highly prevalent mental health needs among youth necessitate the use of evidence-based practices (EBPs). However, EBPs are inconsistently implemented in their primary service delivery setting, schools. Educators' and School-based clinicians' motivation and beliefs often hinder their EBP adoption. Beliefs and Attitudes for Successful Intervention in Schools (BASIS) is a theory-informed, group-based, pre-implementation strategy that blends Motivational Interviewing (MI), Strategic Education, and Social Influence techniques shown to improve individual behavior change mechanisms and evidence-based practice (EBP) adoption. MI techniques (e.g. elicit change talk, build an action plan) are integrated throughout BASIS sessions (n= 2; group 3-10), including facilitator-mediated technical aspects (e.g. elicit change talk with open-ended questions, reflect on participant experiences); and individually oriented and small group workbook activities (e.g. setting an intention, problem-solving, planning). As part of a large-scale cluster-randomized control trial simultaneously examining the effectiveness of BASIS and Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT), BASIS was delivered via the web by a community-based facilitator to 47 school-based mental healthcare (SBMH) practitioners serving 47 schools in six states. In this paper, we describe the BASIS fidelity elements of content adherence (Aim 1); comprehensiveness, facilitation supports, facilitator competence, and participant responsiveness (Aim 2); and explore the variability and associations between fidelity elements (Aim 3). Overall fidelity elements were high, and closer analysis revealed that adherence and responsiveness were associated. These exploratory findings point to a need for future research to describe and analyze fidelity elements of BASIS other group-based MI-embedded supports, particularly for complex or comprehensive web-based MI-delivery.
Educational researchers and school-based practitioners are increasingly using Motivational Interviewing (MI) skills as an implementation tool within coaching applications. To date, however, only a few researchers have measured MI skills rigorously, and among those that do comparisons across applications have been difficult to make. In this manuscript, we present MI proficiency data from 114 audio-recorded conversations with 44 unique teachers and 8 natural implementors (i.e. school-based mental health providers), who employed the Classroom Check-up intervention. Mean summary scores and the percentage of the sample that reached proficiency thresholds at the overall (i.e. all recorded sessions), coach-level and session-level (e.g. first interview session, second session) are provided. Results indicate the Fair proficiency threshold was reached in most sessions, and by most coaches; and that the Good proficiency threshold was reached less frequently. Further, results suggest that MI proficiency varied by session with a higher percentage of coaches reaching proficiency in the first session than subsequent sessions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
