Purpose The purpose of this study is to introduce Market Pareidolia, a conceptual and data-driven framework that categorizes foreign markets according to human age stages: adolescence, adulthood and seniority. The framework is designed to support early-stage International Market Selection (IMS) by helping internationally active firms interpret, compare and communicate foreign-market heterogeneity before undertaking more detailed entry-mode, investment and risk analyses. Design/methodology/approach This study adopts a conceptual framework combining cognitive psychology with international business strategy. Drawing from human age categorizations, 18 human developmental markers were matched to corresponding international market indices across 175 countries. Using Z-score normalization and Factor Analysis, four main factors and two standalone variables were identified, forming a composite “market age” for each country. The approach integrates quantitative data with conceptual reasoning to create a new typology. Findings The study successfully attributes a corresponding “human age” to 175 countries by aligning market indicators with human developmental markers. This anthropomorphic classification facilitates an intuitive understanding of market maturity stages and helps firms relate to international markets more instinctively. The resulting profiles reflect market stability, adaptability, risk and potential for growth through a humanized lens. Market Pareidolia could introduce future new studies on market profiling. Research limitations/implications This study is conceptual and based on data from 2021 to 2022 only, limiting historical comparison. The assumption that human developmental stages can universally represent market traits was not tested across cultural and economic contexts. Further empirical research is needed to validate the model’s applicability and potential biases in different regional or sectoral settings. Practical implications Market Pareidolia provides managers and policymakers with a front-end IMS heuristic. It translates heterogeneous country-level indicators into intuitive market-age profiles, supporting country prioritization, entry-mode deliberation, resource commitment, partner governance and risk calibration. The framework is intended to improve early-stage decision conversations without replacing rigorous market analysis. Social implications This model promotes more empathetic, human-centric market analysis. By conceptualizing markets as evolving entities akin to people, it encourages respectful, adaptive and socially aware engagement. This may influence how firms consider socio-cultural dynamics, sustainability and development goals when entering or operating in diverse markets. Originality/value This paper introduces a novel conceptual framework for foreign-market categorization based on the human age spectrum. By combining cognitive psychology, country-level indicators and International Business Strategy, the study offers a complementary heuristic for IMS. Its originality lies in translating complex market data into an intuitive market-age language that can support managerial sense-making and internationalization decision-making.
Purpose Despite decades of accumulated knowledge and scholarly efforts to explore geopolitical dynamics in international business (IB), this domain remains theoretically and empirically fragmented, necessitating further knowledge synthesis. This study aims to synthesise the geopolitics–IB literature, identify emerging research themes, and propose avenues for future research. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted a systematic review of 105 novel contributions published between 2000 and 2025. The articles were extracted from two comprehensive databases, namely,Web of Science and Scopus. The analysis includes two phases. First, a descriptive analysis followed by content analysis based on a thematic categorization of geopolitics–IB research domain. Findings The findings reveal four major trending themes in current geopolitics–IB research, namely: (i) causes of geopolitical uncertainty, (ii) challenges and impacts of geopolitical uncertainty on multinational corporations (MNCs), (iii) MNCs’ coping strategies during geopolitical uncertainty and (iv) MNCs’ (sustainable) corporate purpose during geopolitical uncertainty. Originality/value The authors contribute to the ongoing geopolitics–IB debate and body of knowledge by exploring the complexities of identified trending themes, their implications for the IB field and offering directions for future research.
Purpose This paper aims to investigate the business ownership style (BOS) of Indigenous Hui entrepreneurs in the Ningxia Autonomous Region of China as a distinctive system of ethical governance embedded within privately owned enterprise (POE) structures. This study examines how moral reasoning, oral tradition and community-based trust mechanisms become institutionalised as operational domestic and international business practices Design/methodology/approach Drawing upon ethnological fieldwork conducted between 2022 and 2024, including interviews, participant observation, oral testimony and student engagement across Ningxia, this study analyses Hui BOS as a historically grounded yet adaptive model of enterprise governance. The research integrates institutional analysis with ethnological inquiry to examine how Hui entrepreneurs sustain trust, legitimacy and resilience across contemporary market conditions. Findings The findings of this study demonstrate that Hui BOS operates through non-familial hiring, servant leadership, ethical reinvestment, mentorship-based capability development, oral trust networks and gradualist growth strategies. Rather than functioning as informal residual traditions, these practices operate as structured governance mechanisms that institutionalise ethical reasoning within enterprise operations. This study further demonstrates that Hui BOS contributes significantly to regional economic resilience, organisational continuity and stakeholder trust. Research limitations/implications The authors limit the academic research included in this paper to those work that specifically address the Hui BOS. Practical implications This study is conducted to develop a practical awareness of the Indigenous ethnic group BOS of the Hui peoples and in doing so breaking away from any monolith thinking in relation to Chinese business practice. Originality/value This paper contributes to international business and institutional theory by demonstrating how Indigenous governance systems can function as durable forms of organisational infrastructure. It extends existing scholarship on entrepreneurship, governance and institutional economics by evidencing how ethical principles become operational governance mechanisms within Indigenous POEs. This study positions Hui BOS as a transferable framework for understanding trust-based governance, sustainable enterprise and alternative models of economic modernity.
Purpose This paper aims to examine the barriers encountered by female architects from developing countries as they attempt to enter and progress within the elite and creative architectural profession in the UK. This paper explores how intersecting identities shape their professional trajectories. Design/methodology/approach The study draws on qualitative data from 49 in-depth interviews with female migrant architects originating from developing countries (India, Nigeria, Bangladesh and Pakistan). Theoretically, it is informed by McCall’s construct of intracategorical complexity and the concept of the liability of outsidership (LOO), enabling a nuanced understanding of intersectional disadvantage. Findings The findings reveal that the intersectional interplay of gender, race and migrant status reinforces professional exclusion for female migrant architects. Complex credential recognition processes and the lack of UK-specific experience make entry into the profession particularly difficult. Furthermore, the devaluation of foreign-acquired skills and expertise – shaped by gendered, racialised and migration-related biases – constrains career development and limits access to meaningful opportunities. Research limitations/implications This study contributes to the theoretical enrichment of intersectionality by applying it to an under-explored professional context. Future research could expand to other creative and highly skilled professions or compare experiences across developed host countries to deepen understanding of these barriers. Practical implications The paper calls for policy interventions to create clearer pathways for recognising foreign qualifications and professional experience. It also urges organisations to offer structured mentorship and sponsorship opportunities and to avoid privileging “localness” and “cultural fit” when assessing talent and allocating career opportunities. This will also have a positive influence on overall organisational effectiveness and performance. Originality/value This paper provides a rare intersectional analysis of migrant females’ experiences in the UK architectural profession. It offers fresh insights into how multiple identity-based disadvantages converge to shape professional exclusion, while highlighting actionable measures for policy and organisational change.
Purpose The purpose of this systematic review is to explore how liabilities of outsidership (LoO) is positioned as a theory primarily in extant international business (IB) literature as well as other literature, including general management, international marketing and international entrepreneurship. Design/methodology/approach The systematic review identified a total of 120 papers based on a key word search of (“liability of outsidership” OR “outsidership”) AND (“international business” OR “multinational enterprise” OR “MNE”) AND (theory OR framework OR model) in Google Scholar. After removing duplicates, conference papers, dissertations, books and book chapters, 60 peer-reviewed journal articles representing IB, international marketing, international entrepreneurship and general management journals were reviewed. Findings Three core themes emerged in relation to varied applications. The first theme identified was ‘the emergence of LoO as a theory’ since the revised Uppsala model. The second theme was ‘LoO and the influence of institutions’ and the final theme was ‘LoO as a finite/recurring challenge’. Research limitations/implications The findings of this paper attempt to highlight LoO as a theory by advancing the revised Uppsala model. This paper will enable managers of MNEs to understand the nature of LoO and equip themselves with necessary strategies to overcome it. Originality/value This systematic review paper is unique from other related reviews. Prior literature reviews have focused primarily on LoO as an antecedent of firm performance or strategies to overcome LoO. In contrast, the current paper is the only systematic literature review that identifies LoO as a theory; explores LoO amidst absent/non-functioning institutions and identifies LoO as a finite or recurring barrier.
