Purpose This paper aims to examine the barriers encountered by female architects from developing countries as they attempt to enter and progress within the elite and creative architectural profession in the UK. This paper explores how intersecting identities shape their professional trajectories. Design/methodology/approach The study draws on qualitative data from 49 in-depth interviews with female migrant architects originating from developing countries (India, Nigeria, Bangladesh and Pakistan). Theoretically, it is informed by McCall’s construct of intracategorical complexity and the concept of the liability of outsidership (LOO), enabling a nuanced understanding of intersectional disadvantage. Findings The findings reveal that the intersectional interplay of gender, race and migrant status reinforces professional exclusion for female migrant architects. Complex credential recognition processes and the lack of UK-specific experience make entry into the profession particularly difficult. Furthermore, the devaluation of foreign-acquired skills and expertise – shaped by gendered, racialised and migration-related biases – constrains career development and limits access to meaningful opportunities. Research limitations/implications This study contributes to the theoretical enrichment of intersectionality by applying it to an under-explored professional context. Future research could expand to other creative and highly skilled professions or compare experiences across developed host countries to deepen understanding of these barriers. Practical implications The paper calls for policy interventions to create clearer pathways for recognising foreign qualifications and professional experience. It also urges organisations to offer structured mentorship and sponsorship opportunities and to avoid privileging “localness” and “cultural fit” when assessing talent and allocating career opportunities. This will also have a positive influence on overall organisational effectiveness and performance. Originality/value This paper provides a rare intersectional analysis of migrant females’ experiences in the UK architectural profession. It offers fresh insights into how multiple identity-based disadvantages converge to shape professional exclusion, while highlighting actionable measures for policy and organisational change.
Purpose The purpose of this systematic review is to explore how liabilities of outsidership (LoO) is positioned as a theory primarily in extant international business (IB) literature as well as other literature, including general management, international marketing and international entrepreneurship. Design/methodology/approach The systematic review identified a total of 120 papers based on a key word search of (“liability of outsidership” OR “outsidership”) AND (“international business” OR “multinational enterprise” OR “MNE”) AND (theory OR framework OR model) in Google Scholar. After removing duplicates, conference papers, dissertations, books and book chapters, 60 peer-reviewed journal articles representing IB, international marketing, international entrepreneurship and general management journals were reviewed. Findings Three core themes emerged in relation to varied applications. The first theme identified was ‘the emergence of LoO as a theory’ since the revised Uppsala model. The second theme was ‘LoO and the influence of institutions’ and the final theme was ‘LoO as a finite/recurring challenge’. Research limitations/implications The findings of this paper attempt to highlight LoO as a theory by advancing the revised Uppsala model. This paper will enable managers of MNEs to understand the nature of LoO and equip themselves with necessary strategies to overcome it. Originality/value This systematic review paper is unique from other related reviews. Prior literature reviews have focused primarily on LoO as an antecedent of firm performance or strategies to overcome LoO. In contrast, the current paper is the only systematic literature review that identifies LoO as a theory; explores LoO amidst absent/non-functioning institutions and identifies LoO as a finite or recurring barrier.
Purpose The purpose of this study is to review the existing literature on guanxi and further avenues of research. Over the past quarter-century, the concept of guanxi-the intricate system of personal relationships and informal networks deeply embedded in Chinese society-has become a focal point of scholarly inquiry in management research. This paper presents a comprehensive bibliometric review of Guanxi research published in leading management journals from 1998 to 2023, mapping the intellectual landscape and thematic evolution of the field. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on data from the Web of Science database, the review uses advanced bibliometric techniques to identify influential works, leading scholars and dominant research clusters. The analysis reveals a marked increase in guanxi-related publications since the late 1990s, reflecting its enduring relevance amid China’s economic transformation and integration into the global economy. Findings The findings highlight the centrality of guanxi in navigating China’s complex business environment, where trust in personal relationships often compensates for institutional weaknesses and legal uncertainties. The review also underscores the cultural roots of guanxi in Confucianism and Daoism, contrasting its collectivist, relationship-centered ethos with Western individualism. While existing literature extensively documents the general utility of guanxi, this bibliometric review reveals several novel patterns that challenge traditional assumptions. Originality/value The study is motivated by the growing global significance of China and East Asia, where guanxi plays a critical role in both social and business contexts, and by the need for a systematic synthesis of fragmented research streams.
Purpose Green business strategies of multinational enterprises (MNEs) have witnessed an upsurge in scholarly interest mainly due to the growing concern about environmental issues on a global basis. In this respect, the purpose of this study is to synthesize and encapsulate the empirical body of research on green business strategies in the context of MNEs. Design/methodology/approach Using a systematic literature review methodology, 65 empirical articles published between 1995 and 2023 were subjected to content analysis with thematic aspects and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, theoretical underpinnings and empirical issues. Findings Despite considerable progress, the findings of this systematic review unveil the shortcomings in the thematic distributions, the gaps associated with the theoretical foundations and the fragmentations covering the empirical results, entailing additional improvements for the thrust of research on green business strategies of MNEs to move towards maturity. Originality/value Addressing the environmental pillar of sustainability thoroughly in the context of MNEs, this systematic review is expected to offer fresh and useful insights into the relevant literature.
Purpose This study aims to investigate the key determinants of ease of doing business (EoDB) and their interdependencies using a graphical approach. Although the World Bank’s Doing Business Report is no longer published, this study draws on its final datasets to examine enduring structural relationships among business regulatory indicators. It aims to identify the most influential factors affecting the EoDB and their relationships, providing policymakers with insights to improve regulatory environments. Design/methodology/approach The research utilizes data from the World Bank Group’s Doing Business Report covering 212 countries. Bayesian belief network (BBN) modeling is applied to analyze the interdependencies among different factors influencing the EoDB. Mutual value of information and scenario analyses are conducted to determine the relative importance of various determinants. Findings The results indicate that starting a business is directly associated with paying taxes, getting electricity and dealing with construction permits. Mutual value of information analysis identifies resolving insolvency as the most informative predictor, followed by protecting minority investors. Scenario analysis reveals that when the indicators such as resolving insolvency, protecting minority investors and getting electricity perform well, the probability of achieving high performance in EoDB approaches 100%. Conversely, poor performance in getting electricity, trading across borders, getting credit and dealing with construction permits is strongly correlated with low performance in EoDB. Originality/value This study provides a novel application of BBN modeling to assess the interdependencies among EoDB factors. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers by identifying key regulatory areas that can enhance business environments. The study’s approach contributes to a more data-driven understanding of business regulatory reforms and highlights priority areas for future research.
Purpose More than 20 years after EU accession, the Central European (CE) region has become a fully integrated part of global supply chains and has attracted growing investor interest from Germany, the UK and the USA. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) played an important role in this process. This research aims to focus on M&As between 2019 and 2023, as the CE region was strongly affected by a polycrisis: COVID-19 and the consequences of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Design/methodology/approach The aim of the study is to examine, using the increasingly recognized chi-squared automatic interaction detection decision tree, whether the CE acquirers changed their expansion strategies during the polycrisis and to assess the profitability of these deals through financial analysis. The authors analyzed 3,032 deals from Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria. Findings The study indicates that acquirers, through the cautious adoption of international strategies and financial exposure, have initiated successful transactions via conglomerate and limited cross-border expansion, potentially facilitating the continued advancement of the region’s principal corporate entities. Originality/value The present research focused on M&A transactions in CE, a field which has hitherto received insufficient scholarly attention. The authors analyzed the success of these transactions during the COVID-19-induced economic and natural crisis using a representative sample. The findings may be of interest not only to academics, but also to emerging, innovative small and medium-sized enterprises for whom cross-border deals can serve as a springboard for further growth.
Purpose This paper aims to examine the impact of international business (IB) activities on environmental quality using a country-level data set from 1990 to 2023.Design/methodology/approach This study first uses generalized method of moment (GMM) controlling for unobservable factors to estimate the impact of IB activities on environmental issues (CO 2 and greenhouse gas emission) on a panel data set of 4,250 observations. Furthermore, using moderating models, this study examines how environmental impact of IB is influenced by governance such as environmental tax rates and regulation levels.Findings The authors' analysis confirms that increased IB activities are associated with higher emissions, which are mitigated during the COVID-19 pandemic. More importantly, when environmental tax rates increase or regulations are stronger, more IB activities lead to less emissions, which confirms pollution haven hypothesis.Research limitations/implications These findings highlight the importance of robust governance frameworks in mitigating the adverse environmental impacts of cross-border business, suggesting that targeted policies can help balance the benefits of IB activities with environmental sustainability objectives to achieve both SDG 8 (Economic growth) and SDG 13 (Climate Action).Originality/value This research offers a significant contribution by integrating moderation analysis with GMM estimation to explore how governance factors, such as environmental tax rates and regulation, condition the environmental impact of IB.
Purpose This study examines how participants in global virtual teams (GVTs) perceive collaboration challenges and success factors, rather than assuming cultural diversity is inherently disruptive. By focusing on participants’ interpretations of cultural differences and contrasting established theoretical barriers with the retrospective reflections of early career participants for whom virtual collaboration tools are familiar rather than novel, this study aims to determine if operational and adaptive skills outweigh national cultural differences in shaping collaboration outcomes and competency development. Design/methodology/approach Survey data from 81 participants were analyzed using an exploratory mixed-methods approach. Quantitative analysis and thematic coding examined participant reflections on their teamwork experience. Findings The findings of this study indicate that participants’ interpretations of GVT collaboration diverge from commonly cited assumptions in the literature. Cultural differences were not widely reported as major sources of disruption. Communication emerged as the most critical factor associated with perceived team effectiveness, followed by shared goals and a positive team attitude. Participants also reported perceived growth in intercultural communication, adaptability and cross-cultural collaboration skills. This study offers insight into how participants interpret GVT collaboration, emphasizing the importance of team processes and individual adaptability. Research limitations/implications Self-report surveys are appropriate for capturing personal reflections, yet they may introduce interpretation and survey-related biases. While the sample consists of university students, participants engaged in an authentic global virtual collaboration context around real business problems, offering a setting that captures important features of global virtual teamwork. Future research is encouraged to explore a variety of measurement approaches and examine similar dynamics across varied organizational settings. Practical implications Managers should prioritize training and support in the areas that emerged as key perceived enablers of collaboration and competency development: communication, coordination strategies, informal trust-building and goal alignment. Originality/value This study offers a nuanced, perception-based understanding of GVT experiences through the voices of participants. This study emphasizes team processes and offers theme-driven insights into how early-career, digitally fluent individuals experience virtual collaboration.
Purpose This study aims to develop a new theoretical framework to explain how geopolitical disintegration in the Middle East and Red Sea region generates transregional shocks that disrupt multinational enterprises (MNEs) and how artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities enhance firm-level strategic resilience. Design/methodology/approach This study introduces the transregional shock transmission (TST) theory and uses a multi-method quantitative design. It integrates panel data from 75 MNEs in the logistics, energy and shipping sectors with event-based conflict data and machine-coded news sentiment analysis for 2013–2024. A moderated mediation model is tested using structural equation modeling to examine the relationships between geopolitical instability, risk perception, strategic adaptation and AI capabilities. Findings Firms with advanced AI-driven risk intelligence systems demonstrate significantly higher resilience to geopolitical shocks. These firms adapt supply chains more rapidly, mitigate financial losses and restore operations more efficiently. AI capability moderates the adverse effects of geopolitical disintegration by enhancing real-time risk perception and adaptive decision-making. Research limitations/implications This study is limited by its cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported data, which may constrain causal inference and introduce bias. Although the sample is diverse, generalizability remains limited. Future research should adopt longitudinal and multi-source approaches and further validate emerging constructs to deepen the understanding of leadership and ethical accountability in AI-mediated contexts. Practical implications Theoretically, this study extends crisis internationalization and geopolitical risk research by positioning AI as a dynamic capability shaping firm responses to regional instability. Practically, the findings suggest that MNEs should: invest in AI-enabled early warning and predictive analytics systems; integrate geopolitical risk metrics into strategic planning; decentralize critical supply chain nodes; and shift from reactive to proactive resilience models in fragile environments. Originality/value This paper advances a novel conceptual model, TST theory, that explains how localized political instability translates into global business disruption. By highlighting the strategic role of AI in navigating transregional shocks, it offers new insights into adaptive international business strategy amid escalating geopolitical fragmentation.
Purpose This study aims to explain how selected small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) internationalization factors move beyond their traditional role as foreign market entry drivers and become resilience-building mechanisms. It examines how these factors help SMEs sustain international operations, adapt to disruption and avoid fragile or short-lived internationalization trajectories. Design/methodology/approach A PRISMA-based systematic literature review analyzes 198 Scopus and Web of Science articles published between 2001 and 2025, using deductive content analysis to connect internationalization and resilience research. Findings The review identifies six dual-role factors, business model adaptability (BMA), liquidity, managerial traits, information and communications technology (ICT) adoption, innovation capacity and networks. It proposes a new categorization into resource-based, relational and strategic/operational domains and develops a framework integrating internationalization factors, dynamic capabilities and international resilience through direct, mediated and moderated pathways. Research limitations/implications A small sample limits generalizability and prevents causal inference, so the findings should be interpreted as associative and context-bound. Future research using larger, multi-country and longitudinal designs should test whether the identified dual-role drivers hold across sectors, crises and institutional environments. Practical implications The findings suggest that managers and policymakers should prioritize ICT and managerial capabilities that enhance BMA, so that internationalization drivers not only open doors to foreign markets but also help SMEs maintain a long-term presence abroad. Originality/value The study advances SME internationalization research by moving beyond traditional entry-focused explanations. It shows why and how the same factors that help SMEs enter international markets may become evolving meta-capabilities that support continuity, adaptation and resilient international presence under uncertainty.
Purpose This paper aims to investigate and analyze four well-established grain and commodity multinational corporations (MNCs), commonly known as the ABCD (Archer Daniels Midland/ADM, Bunge, Cargill and Dreyfus). The four firms play a major role in international business (IB) and global agriculture. Design/methodology/approach By using a case-based research approach and literature-specific discussion, we systematically compare the four MNCs and their evolutionary growth and internationalization in world markets. Findings - Findings of the paper reveal that this well-established oligopoly distinctly controls over 70 % of commodity and grain markets and remains to be staunchly competitive regarding logistical networks, international operations and foreign direct investment (FDI). Research limitations/implications The paper mostly relied on case-based approach and secondary data that is useful in IB and related areas. Practical implications The paper provides useful implications and future research directions that at present need additional studies and investigations. Social implications Today's ABCD firms maintain distinct competitive advantage and operate worldwide and have a strong impact on local and national economies. Originality/value The paper is a timely investigation of a phenomenon that remains to be important in commodities and international agriculture.
Purpose The study aims to clarify and present the role of the eclectic paradigm in manufacturing location decision research by examining its development, limitations, contributions and contemporary applications. Design/methodology/approach Conceptual paper based on how the eclectic paradigm developed and how it can be used. With an in-depth literature review to critically examine the theoretical evolution of the eclectic paradigm and its application in manufacturing location decision research, this study develops a strategic framework that enhances understanding. Findings This paper presents a practical guide for applying the eclectic paradigm. It introduces the strategic positioning matrix, enabling more effective navigation of the complexities in international production and location decision-making. It also highlights three dimensions to understand the decision factors, i.e. the drivers, barriers and enablers, in dynamic international business contexts. Research limitations/implications This paper harmonises with critical realism and once again stresses the fragmented and eclectic state of the research field by consolidating and advancing existing knowledge. Its conceptual scope, however, excludes empirical validation. Future research is encouraged to validate the proposed framework to assess its practical relevance and further explore contingency factors that remain underdeveloped in current literature. Originality/value As one of the few conceptual studies focused on the eclectic paradigm's role in this context, this paper contributes by organising, systematising and extending its application. With the strategic positioning matrix, it fosters a more nuanced understanding and wider application among scholars and practitioners.
Purpose This study aims to investigate the motives, facilitators and barriers in export activity of women entrepreneurs and shed light upon the perception of women entrepreneurs about the opportunities international trade creates for them. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a purposive sample of 50 women entrepreneurs indulged in export activity from a cross section of enterprises in India. A qualitative methodology based upon in-depth, exploratory interviews is used, which enables the authors to arrive at a deeper understanding of lived experiences of women entrepreneurs. Findings The findings reveal that women exporters are driven by intrinsic factors such as nationalistic sentiments and urge for creativity while pursuing internationalization. The challenges cited were lack of information about various aspects of exporting and high cost of market development. More than half of respondents consider gender as challenge in getting finances, convincing clients and maintaining balance between demands from home and work. Despite the challenges, women consider trade as avenue to bypass discrimination in home market and as source of business growth and personality development. The findings refute the view that women entrepreneurs fail to make internationalization a value-generating process. Originality/value This study uncovers underexplored motives – such as patriotic and prosocial drivers – and integrates identity-based and normative perspectives into international entrepreneurship theory. The findings reframe women entrepreneurs not as passive beneficiaries but as active contributors who help internationalize India’s economic image, offering a new policy lens on export promotion. It reveals a mutually reinforcing relationship between gender and internationalization – where trade empowers women entrepreneurs, and women exporters enhance India’s global competitiveness – creating a “virtuous cycle” that deepens the conceptual understanding of gender and globalization.
PurposeWhile research on environmental sustainability in international business (IB) and strategy has gained momentum, the role of multinational enterprises (MNEs) in advancing sustainability remains contested. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of environmental sustainability research in IB and the environmental strategy choices of MNEs. Design/methodology/approachThe author conducted a bibliometric analysis of 232 papers from 13 IB and strategy journals over the past 50 years (1973–2023). The author used the first and second-order themes and sub-themes to develop an integrated framework for adopting environmental strategies. FindingsThe author unveil the descriptive, conceptual, intellectual and social structures of the corporate environmental sustainability research trajectory. Moreover, based on the conceptual and intellectual structures, the author have developed an integrated framework that highlights the individual, interactive and dynamic roles of country- and firm-level enablers and inhibitors in explaining the MNE’s adoption of higher- or lower-, or mixed-order environmental strategies. The environmental strategy choices are dynamic and evolve in response to changing configurations of country- and firm-level enablers and inhibitors, as well as in response to the underlying context. Originality/valueThe contribution lies in providing a holistic understanding of environmental sustainability research in IB and strategy, and in developing a novel, dynamic MNE-specific 2x2 framework that explains MNEs’ environmental strategy choices. The framework enables managers to choose their environmental strategies based on firm- and country-level enablers and inhibitors, as well as the evolving nature of these enablers and inhibitors. The author also suggest future research opportunities in this area.
PurposeMicro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are crucial for economic growth in developing countries like Indonesia. However, many MSMEs face difficulties when trying to enter international markets, mainly because of limited resources and strategic capabilities. This study aims to investigate the internal mechanisms that affect the export capabilities of MSMEs, focusing on technological, innovation and entrepreneurial orientation. Using the resource-based view (RBV) as a framework, this study examines how entrepreneurial orientation affects the relationship between technological and innovation capabilities and export readiness. Design/methodology/approachThis study used a quantitative approach, distributing questionnaires to MSMEs in West Java. Data were collected from 400 respondents using purposive sampling technique, exceeding the minimum sample size calculated using G*Power. The data were then analyzed using partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to examine cause-and-effect relationships among the constructs. FindingsThe results indicate that entrepreneurial orientation has a significant positive effect on export capability. Innovation capability enhances entrepreneurial orientation; however, it does not directly affect export capability. Its influence is entirely mediated by entrepreneurial orientation. Technological capability directly enhances export capability; however, it does not affect entrepreneurial orientation, suggesting its role is primarily operational rather than strategic. The results indicate that entrepreneurial orientation is the primary mechanism for converting innovation into export readiness, whereas technological capability primarily enhances operational efficiency and compliance with export standards. Originality/valueThis research adds to the existing knowledge in international entrepreneurship by examining how internal capabilities affect the export capabilities of MSMEs in developing countries. It highlights the importance of behavioral factors in how a firm’s capabilities translate into international market participation, thus expanding the RBV within the context of SME internationalization. This study distinguishes between the strategic and operational aspects of export readiness. It provides insights into how capabilities develop and informs policies and management strategies that support MSMEs in international markets.
PurposeThis study aims to investigate the role of organizational culture in fostering an agile mindset and examine how such a mindset affects behavioral aspects of international performance, considering both linear and non-linear effects. Design/methodology/approachIntegrating the competing values framework (CVF) and the resource-based view (RBV), this study develops hypotheses and tests them using structural equation modeling on data from managers of internationally active strategic business units. FindingsThe findings indicate a paradoxical organizational culture in which market, adhocracy and hierarchy cultures jointly foster an agile mindset, while clan culture has no significant effect. Furthermore, an agile mindset positively influences behavioral performance and specifically demonstrates an inverted U-shaped relationship with organizational commitment. Research limitations/implicationsThe findings emphasize the relevance of an agile mindset in international business (IB) and its practical implications for managers seeking to build an engaged and motivated workforce. Originality/valueThis study makes a novel theoretical contribution by being the first to examine how organizational culture shapes the agile mindset, integrating the RBV and the CVF within an IB context.
PurposeAlthough institutional distance and entry decisions have long been key topics in international business (IB) studies, little attention has been paid to how institutional distance influences re-entry decisions involved in re-entering international markets. To address this research gap, this study aims to investigate the non-linear relationship between institutional distance and re-entry decision, as well as the moderating effect of potential slack on this relationship.Design/methodology/approachThis study examines Japanese multinational enterprises that re-entered Southeast Asian markets after exiting between 2010 and 2020. It also tests whether the relationship between institutional distance and the re-entry decision follows an inverted U-shaped relationship, using a logit regression on manually collected, unbalanced re-entry data.FindingsThe empirical findings reveal that institutional distance has an inverted U-shaped relationship with re-entry decisions. Although prospective re-entrants may draw on prior experience in markets with high institutional distance, the results show that this experience can ultimately cause hesitation in re-entry decisions, as the institutional challenges are deemed unacceptable. However, the results also indicate that having potential slack resources may flatten this relationship, with higher potential slack facilitating re-entry.Originality/valueThis study offers academic originality by examining the non-linear relationship between institutional distance and re-entry using a refined data set, distinguishing it from previous research. Additionally, by integrating the Uppsala Model, the distance perspective and the slack resource perspective, this study contributes to both re-entry and IB research by demonstrating, through testing the moderating effect, the dynamics of re-entry that have not been extensively explored.
PurposeThis study aims to explore the role of organisational creativity in the international entrepreneurial opportunities process (IEOP) – namely, recognition, evaluation and exploitation of international opportunities – by drawing on resource-based and schema theories. In addition, based on social capital theory, this study examines the moderating effect of relational capital in the relationship between organisational creativity and the IEOP. Design/methodology/approachThis research adopts a quantitative research design, using both questionnaires and interviews for data collection. This empirical work was conducted within the Spanish hotel sector, with a specific focus on hotel chains operating in Spain, and the data were analysed using Poisson regression models. FindingsThe results confirmed the positive impact of organisational creativity on IEOP and the moderating positive role of relational capital between organisational creativity and the process of recognising, evaluating and exploiting international entrepreneurial opportunities. Originality/valueThis study offers a comprehensive examination of the entire IEOP and explain it through organisational creativity and relational capital. The findings reveal that shared creative cognitive processes within firms facilitate both the entry into and expansion within foreign markets, and trust between partners strengthens it. This research contributes to the literature on corporate entrepreneurship and international business by addressing the relative scarcity of empirical studies focused on the IEOP.
PurposeThe study aims to identify the patterns in the entry mode choice process of multinational enterprises (MNEs) of Türkiye as an emerging economy in Pakistan in terms of the motivation to do business, the perceived risks and challenges and the selection criteria. Design/methodology/approachRecognizing the lack of empirical research on entry mode choice of emerging market multinational enterprises (EMNEs) expanding into other emerging markets from the processual perspective, eight Turkish multinational enterprises operating in Pakistan were studied using an inductive approach with a multiple case study methodology. Various data collection methods were used, including company websites, annual reports, observations and in-depth interviews. In-depth interviews were conducted with company executives and international department managers to examine their entry mode choice processes. FindingsThe results reveal that six firms chose full ownership as their entry mode, while one firm opted for partnerships and another used multiple entry modes, including local partnerships, joint ventures and subcontracting. The findings demonstrate that each firm followed a distinct pattern shaped by its motivations, perceived risks and evaluation criteria. Notably, even firms that selected identical entry modes exhibited significant differences in their decision-making processes. The results revealed three distinct patterns as relational pragmatists, strategic thinkers and market consolidators in the entry mode choice process of Turkish EMNEs in Pakistan. Originality/valueThe study demonstrates that entry mode choice by EMNEs into other emerging markets are neither purely efficiency-driven nor solely constrained by cultural and institutional conditions; instead, they emerge from hybrid reasoning processes combining relational embeddedness, capability advancement and control imperatives. These findings move beyond conventional models that treat motivations, risks and evaluations as separate determinants, instead revealing their interdependence as a complex and dynamic architecture of decision-making.
PurposePakistan owns the world second second-largest salt resources, yet its share in total salt markets is around two percent. This study aims to analyse Pakistan's existing salt export markets and to strategically select its market to enhance its salt exports.Design/methodology/approachMulticriteria decision-making (MCDM) based hybrid method called interval-valued Atanasov intuitionistic fuzzy combinative distance-based assessment (IVAIF-CODAS) is used in this studyFindingsThe results contradict the "Springboard" perspective; exporters prioritise regional markets. High sensitivity to transaction costs reflects a latent drive to preserve socioemotional wealth.Practical implicationsThe findings are helpful for policymakers and salt exporters. It also provides a unique application of the IVAIF-CODAS in market selection for salt in a developing country context, an approach that could be adopted to similar kinds of situations in different contexts.Originality/valueThe study's major contribution is the application of IVAIF-CODAS in the context of strategic market selection for salt exports in a developing country.
