The facilitative or non-directive approach in coaching, encouraged in coach training and accreditation, is at odds with some authors arguing for more directive approaches, especially in business contexts. The purpose of this research was to explore what executive coaches are doing in practice, with a focus on how and why they might use more directive approaches. An interpretivist qualitative research approach was used in which transcripts from interviews with ten experienced executive coaches were subjected to thematic analysis. A key finding was that coaches frequently and willingly used forms of directive intervention that are generally frowned upon within coaching. Notably, the coaches turned to a directive approach after first trying facilitative options. They tended to implement their more directive interventions by means of non-directive practices. Coaches also used challenging-a directive approach deemed acceptable. Reasons given for using more directive approaches included: the coachee appearing stuck, complying with coachee expectations, coaches drawing from expertise or experience, and the organisational sponsor context. Taken together, the findings point to the need for further research into the validity or otherwise of more directive approaches being used in praxis towards establishing what works in coaching and to achieve greater alignment between theory and practice.
Comparisons between coaches' and clients' perspectives are uncommon, yet they consistently highlight differences in the perceived importance of coaching-success predictors. In this study, 76 coaches and 1,217 clients assessed their own processes with respect to coaching predictors (working alliance, empathy, trust, perspective taking, and need support) and coaching-success variables (goal attainment, satisfaction, and need fulfilment). A comparison of structural equation models for coaches and clients indicates that working alliance and trust, the strongest predictors of the proximal coaching-success variables (goal attainment, satisfaction), were consistent across perspectives. For clients, empathy emerged as a particularly influential predictor of both proximal outcomes, while coaching satisfaction was further influenced by the working alliance bond and, negatively, by imagine-self perspective taking. For the distal outcome (need fulfilment), working alliance tasks and trust proved significant. Empathy and competence were supported from both coaches' and clients' perspectives. For coaches, imagine self added predictive value, whereas for clients, autonomy support and commitment (negatively) played a role. We found systematic differences in the factors according to perspective, particularly the neglect of empathy among the proximal coaching-success factors and of autonomy support among the distal ones, highlighting the importance of considering both perspectives to enhance the understanding of coaching effectiveness.
This intervention field study conceptualises executive coaching as a job resource for stress management, grounded in the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory. Drawing on data from 123 coachees across 13 organisations and 36 professional external coaches, we explored the work context (e.g., direct manager support and expected required effort to achieve goals), coachee reflection during coaching as reported by the coach, the coach's support, the coach-coachee interaction, and goals reported by the coachee. Our results underscore the importance of perceived contextual factors and the interplay between coach support and coachee reflection in managing job demands and perceived coaching outcomes. As perceived by the coachee, coach support mediated the impact of direct manager support on coaching outcomes, highlighting the coaching role in maximising coachees' resources. Moreover, the findings indicate that the coachee-perceived trust in the coach and the coach's motivation support buffered low coachee reflection. This suggests that coaching is a job resource that promotes goal performance and well-being by helping coachees regain balance between job demands and available resources.
Artificial intelligence (AI) coaching chatbots are increasingly used to support personal and professional development, yet little is known about how different coaching models translate into AI-mediated practice. This study compares three established coaching approaches: GROW, Solution Focused (SF) and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) as implemented in generative AI chatbots. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Transformative Learning Theory (TLT), we examine how these approaches influence three outcomes central to coaching: goal attainment, working alliance (bond, goal, task) and client technology adoption. In a two-wave experimental study (N = 592), participants were randomly assigned to engage with one of the three coaching chatbots over two sessions. Contrary to expectations derived from human coaching literature, the CBT-based chatbot outperformed both GROW and SF chatbots across most measures, suggesting that AI-mediated coaching may activate different psychological processes than human coaching. These findings extend coaching theory by exploring how established models function in AI contexts and highlight implications for coaching practice, training and the integration of AI into organisational and developmental settings. The study also raises critical questions about the unique contribution of human coaches in an era of increasingly capable AI coaching tools.
Executive coaching aims to facilitate sustainable behavioural change in leaders, yet outcomes often appear to depend less on specific techniques than on common factors such as alliance and a credible change rationale. We interviewed nine leaders who received a personality-based executive coaching approach integrating a strong working alliance with a Big Five framework and structured feedback. Semi-structured interviews were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Four meta-themes captured participants' experiences: (1) expectations shaped by prior coaching, (2) learning and applying a shared personality language, (3) trust in the coach and the method, and (4) post-coaching integration. Participants described an early relational bond that made it easier to engage with and internalise the personality framework. They emphasised the coach's flexible and context-sensitive use of the Big Five - avoiding rigid categorisation - as central to developing self-awareness and sustaining change beyond the sessions. The findings suggest that common relational factors and an accepted psychological rationale may interact to support executive coaching outcomes, offering potential points of dialogue between coaching and psychotherapy research.
This scoping review examines the design and effectiveness of AI coaching chatbots in light of recent advances in generative artificial intelligence. Following the emergence of large language models in 2022-2023, AI coaching has gained traction as a scalable and cost-effective intervention, yet evidence guiding effective design remains limited. Using a five-stage PRISMA-ScR methodology, 17 empirical studies were analysed through thematic synthesis. Three overarching themes emerged: chatbot design considerations, determinants of adoption, and the operationalisation of AI coaching. Findings indicate that generative AI enhances interaction quality, usability, and engagement, particularly for structured tasks such as goal setting, reflection, feedback, and intersessional support. However, limitations in relational depth, cultural sensitivity, and psychological nuance persist, positioning AI coaches as complementary rather than substitutive to human coaching.
As more people experience adversity and seek coaching for non-clinical support, there is an ethical responsibility to understand the client's perspective before determining how coaching practice should adapt. This study addresses a significant gap by foregrounding the client voice, exploring the lived experience of first-time coaching among individuals with past adversity. Method: Volunteer participants (n = 16) with no prior coaching experience each received two coaching sessions. Post-session semi-structured interviews (n = 32) provided qualitative data, analysed via Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Results: Two master themes and four subordinate themes were constructed. The first, Sensitivity to Coach Behaviours, comprised On the Same Wavelength and Out of Sync, revealing that people with past adversity may be sensitive to coach behaviours influencing relational quality and effectiveness. The second, Processing Issues Beneath the Surface comprised Open Disclosure of Past Adversity and Keeping the Past Hidden, suggesting that some clients choose to disclose past adversity, even when coaching on day-to-day issues. Conclusions: Coaches may wish to develop advanced skills in holding non-directive, non-reactive space, which can be difficult when faced with emotionally charged material. Drawing from Trauma-Informed Practices, Polyvagal and Somatic Theories, and expanding the role of Expert Companion is recommended.
This study investigates the relationship between coaching practices and the management of work-family enrichment, with a focus on the mediating roles of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. The primary objective it to explore the benefits of coaching in a business context, particularly its positive impact on employees' ability to manage professional and family demands. Our findings suggest that individuals who receive coaching are better equipped to balance work and family responsibilities. To examine this, we employed a quasi-experimental design, comparing participants who underwent coaching with those who did not. The results indicate a positive and significant sequential mediation effect of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in the link between coaching and work-family enrichment. These findings add to the growing body of literature by clarifying how coaching practices can enhance work-family enrichment. The paper concludes with a discussion on the study's limitations, practical recommendations for management, and suggestions for future research.
This systematic review investigates the effectiveness of coaching interventions in higher education, synthesising evidence from 23 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2003 and 2023. Research questions are: (1) What are the key outcomes of coaching interventions for university students? (2) Which coaching approaches and modalities are most commonly used? (3) which student populations are targeted? (4) How is mental health considered in participant selection and coaching delivery? Employing PRISMA guidelines and critical appraisal tools, the review reveals consistent benefits of coaching across academic and psychological - including academic performance, retention rates, executive functioning, self-regulation, and well-being. Quantitative findings demonstrate moderate to large effect sizes for outcomes. A diverse range of coaching modalities (e.g., one-on-one, peer, group, and online) and theoretical frameworks (e.g., Cognitive Behavioural Coaching, Positive Psychology Coaching) were identified, though their application remains uneven across contexts. Notably, few studies systematically addressed inclusion or exclusion based on mental health conditions, highlighting a need for clearer boundaries and ethical guidance. The review also underscores a lack of consistency in coaching program descriptions, caseloads, and coach training standards, which limits replicability and comparability. This study offers actionable recommendations for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to enhance student success.
Questions are a central intervention in coaching. However, beyond isolated psychological research, the evidence base of questioning in coaching and its contribution to effectiveness is insufficient. What is particularly lacking is how (un)successful questioning is done in authentic interactions. The interdisciplinary, linguistic and psychological, project Questioning Sequences in Coaching (QueSCo) is the first study addressing this gap. It uses authentic, linguistically transcribed, video - and audio-recorded processes and investigates questions as part of 5-position questioning sequences. This sequence entails what coaches and clients do before the question (positions -2 and -1), coaches' question (position 1), clients' response (2nd position) and coaches' reaction to clients' response (3rd position). This paper presents the design of QueSCo and main results, i.e., the empirically developed typology of questions and questioning sequences alongside frequency statistics. These results document the significance of questioning sequences and illustrate their local effectiveness, i.e., their successful completion: 83% of the data are part of (mostly successful) questioning sequences. Clients provide (more than) answers in 73% of cases. The 5-position questioning sequence is discussed in its practical and educational relevance. It sensitises practitioners for the sequential co-construction of questioning. The empirically developed categories for each position, particularly the 12 question types, offer tools to learn and optimise practice.
Most studies on AI coaching focus on AI as an independent system. Instead, this study examines the implementation of hybrid AI-supported coaching, where an AI-tool supports but does not replace the human coach. We evaluate how coaches and workers experience the implementation of AI-supported coaching, and what factors shape trust and perceived effectiveness. We use an inductive thematic analysis of qualitative interviews with both coaches and workers one month and five months after implementation of the AI-tool. The evaluation focuses on four themes: Two themes refer to the coaches: AI integration and Coaching effectiveness; and two themes refer to the agents: Trust dynamics and Feedback-driven growth. Our findings reveal an initial phase of resistance, linked to concerns about surveillance, followed by growing trust and perceived value due to the tool's ability to generate feedback that was perceived as more objective, consistent, and more relevant than the traditional subjective feedback of coaches. Although adoption required additional effort, the tool enabled more targeted preparation, precise feedback, and measurable learning outcomes. Transparent use and the active involvement of coaches who build their coaching on the AI-generated data further supported this transition. Trust in the AI-supported coaching was built through ongoing human engagement.
This qualitative phenomenological study explores Secondary school teachers' perceptions of how cognitive coaching enhances self-efficacy, supporting self-improvement and professional development. Research highlights a strong link between coaching and self-efficacy, with coaching fostering optimism, reflective growth, and improved teaching practices. This study examines how non-evaluative coaching observations and validation of new methods contribute to increased teacher confidence. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the study identifies key themes through coding and thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with eight secondary teachers in a school in Wales participating in a peer coaching programme. Four main themes emerged: (1) attitudes towards coaching, (2) its impact on teaching practices, (3) perceptions of self-efficacy, and (4) relationships with coach-coachees. Findings suggest that cognitive coaching enhances reflective practice, self-directed learning, and overall teacher efficacy. The study is relevant to both Primary and Secondary schools, providing insights into how a coaching model supports professional growth and enriches pedagogy. Additionally, it offers implications for leadership teams considering coaching as a sustainable, in-house professional development approach aligned with policy initiatives promoting schools as 'Learning Organisations'.
Weight-inclusive health coaching provides a viable alternative to traditional weight-centric models of care and may assist clients in implementing sustainable health behaviours. The purpose of this project was to assess the impact of a six-session university campus health coaching programme (UCAN) on eating competence and body appreciation in university students. The UCAN intervention included twenty-eight participants (88.9% female, 89.3% white) who completed six individual weekly motivational interviewing sessions. Pre- and post-surveys included demographic questions, the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2), and the Satter Eating Competence Inventory (ecSI 2.0). Paired samples t-tests were conducted to determine changes in body appreciation and eating competence from pre- to post-intervention. There was a statistically significant increase in body appreciation (Mpre = 3.46, Mpost = 3.72, p = .01) and in eating competence (Mpre = 29.62, Mpost = 33.38, p = .003) from pre- to post-intervention. Results from the study indicate that participation in a six-week weight-inclusive health coaching programme was associated with improvements in body appreciation and eating competence one week after the final session. Future research would benefit from replicating this study with a more diverse population.
Positive psychology interventions are increasingly recognised for their role in enhancing well-being, resilience, and professional functioning in educational settings. This study explored the retrospective experiences of teachers who participated in Start with the Heart, a four-day group-based coaching programme designed to promote well-being, resilience, and positive functioning among teachers in international and bilingual schools in China. Twelve teachers from six schools were interviewed six months after the intervention using semi-structured online interviews. Through inductive thematic analysis, we identified key themes reflecting participants' perceptions of improved interpersonal relationships, self-efficacy, leadership confidence, and emotional regulation. Participants reported enhanced social connectedness, greater reflective awareness, and renewed professional motivation. The coaching framework, grounded in positive psychology and solution-focused techniques, was perceived to support goal-setting, self-reflection, and strengths-based development. Some participants described continued use of self-coaching tools, while others emphasised the value of embedding coaching into professional development culture. Although findings provide valuable insights, they are based on retrospective self-reports and a small, context-specific sample. We tentatively propose that coaching-informed interventions may contribute to teacher well-being and collegiality, though further longitudinal and mixed-method studies are needed to validate and expand on these findings.
Workplace coaching has become an international phenomenon being applied in various organisational and national contexts. The increasing globalisation of coaching culture raises the question of how the social and cultural contexts of its application interact with the coaching practice and its main components, such as the coaching working alliance (WA). Of particular interest is how the perspectives of clients and coaches of diverse cultural backgrounds are integrated in the coaching practice and affect their experience. The present study focused on the client's perception of the role of cultural factors in the coaching WA. A thematic analysis was applied to analyse the data from semi-structured interviews (n = 10) with recipients of individual online coaching sessions. The findings reflect participants' individual visions of the concept culture and indicate an interaction of perceived cultural influences with the main components of the WA. The addressed components included understanding and trust, bond and quality of communication between client and coach, success of coaching conversations, as well as the evaluation of coach's competence. The findings are discussed together with their implications for the coaching research and practice.
This paper explores the evaluation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) AI coaching agent (coachbot) as a tool for workplace performance and wellbeing conversations. The paper starts by considering methods for the evaluation of coach performance, including client evaluation, qualitative and quantitative methods and coach competencies. Using a coach competency as a framework, this study uses a qualitative approach to assess a real-world AI coaching agent's 'behaviours' in the form of an assessment by trained ICF assessors of a genuine session with a human client. The study involved a sample of 43 managers who volunteered to be coached by an AI Coaching agent. ICF assessors used the ICF coach competency framework and supporting behavioural anchored rating (BARS) framework developed by the ICF. The results indicated the AI coaching agent was able to demonstrate many elements of both ICF ACC level and PCC level coach competencies. The assessment also revealed gaps in AI coach competence. We conclude AI coaching agents are highly competent at some aspects of the coach process, while less competent at others. Further, AI development is needed to address these gaps.
This study examined how undergraduate students' religiosity influenced coaching's impact on developing self-care behaviours and investigated the characteristics of students who chose to work on different self-care domains. Students enrolled in an undergraduate business leadership and management course participated in the 12-week study. Participants in the coached group engaged in a structured coaching programme throughout the study, whereas those in the control group did not receive coaching. Students' religiosity was measured using Huber and Huber's Centrality of Religiosity Scale, while self-care behaviours were assessed using Santana and Fouad's Self-Care Behavior Inventory across physical, cognitive-emotional-relational (CER), and spiritual domains. The findings indicated coaching programmes can particularly benefit students with greater centrality of religiosity, while suggesting the need for modified approaches for less religious students. The results provide important insights for designing targeted interventions that consider students' religious orientations when coaching them to develop self-care practices. The research makes a unique contribution by being the first to examine how client religiosity influences coaching effectiveness, particularly when developing student self-care behaviours.
