Eucalyptus bosistoana (Myrtaceae) is a breeding species of NZDFI (New Zealand Dryland Forests Innovation), which aims to establish forestry plantations of ground-durable, high-value hardwoods in New Zealand. For this purpose, plants from E. bosistoana seeds collected from natural source locations in Australia between 2008-2012 have been used since 2009 to establish breeding trials in New Zealand. To inform the NZDFI breeding programme, leaf samples of 177 E. bosistoana breeding families were genotyped using a Eucalyptus 72K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) Axiom array. This was done to identify patterns of genetic structure among E. bosistoana breeding families and to assess the genetic structure and diversity of the natural source populations from which their seeds were obtained. PCoA and STRUCTURE analyses indicated that the E. bosistoana seeds were obtained from three natural source populations with similar levels of genetic diversity. Weak genetic structure among most natural source locations of E. bosistoana within these populations was observed, and families from nearby source locations were generally genetically more similar to each other than to those established from more distant locations. We also found that some families in the E. bosistoana breeding programme represent E. melliodora. These combined genetic patterns provide the genetic basis for establishing, maintaining, or improving NZDFI's E. bosistoana breeding populations.
Forest certification schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) are widely promoted as tools to improve environmental, social and economic outcomes in timber production forestry. While international research on certification effects is substantial, evidence from Australia remains limited and fragmented. This study synthesises peer-reviewed and grey literature published since 1993 to assess certification effects with a focus on Australian contexts, while situating findings within the broader international evidence base. Four research questions guided the review: (1) What methods have been used to assess the effects of implementing certification by forest managers?; (2) What types of environmental, social and economic outcomes have been empirically attributed to forest certification and to what extent do these represent observable differences in management practices or forest conditions?; (3) Where along forest product value chains have effects been observed?; and (4) What types of impacts (e.g. market access, reporting, chain-of-custody integrity) have been documented beyond the forest gate? Searches were conducted in Google Scholar and Scopus in May 2025, limited to the first 50 results per query, and supplemented by targeted snowballing. Eligible studies included those that evaluated actual or perceived certification effects in forestry. Forest certification effect assessments vary across environmental, social and economic dimensions. Few international studies establish a credible causal link between certification and on-ground environmental effects using explicit counterfactuals and the findings have been mixed. Australian studies generally point to procedural improvements rather than demonstrated environmental outcomes, although the counterfactual with no certification has not been investigated. Social outcomes have been investigated using qualitative methods, revealing context-dependent effects, including strengthening of tenure rights internationally and improved stakeholder engagement in Australia, but potential burdens on smallholders. Economic effects were investigated using interviews, questionnaires and surveys and reveal mixed outcomes. While there is limited evidence of price premiums in both international and Australian contexts, certification improves access to certain forest product markets and provides assurance to investors. Key barriers to certification include high compliance costs; key enablers include reputational benefits, access to markets, and alignment with existing regulations.
Accurate and scalable estimation of tree trunk diameter, particularly diameter at breast height (DBH), plays a key role in forest inventory, biomass modelling and ecological monitoring. While Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) remains a gold standard for tree structure measurement, the increasing accessibility of wearable and mobile LiDAR platforms raises the need for unified, platform-independent processing strategies. However, most existing workflows are platform-specific and do not provide a standardised basis for comparative evaluation. This study introduces an automated and transferable pipeline for tree trunk segmentation and DBH estimation, designed to work consistently across three distinct LiDAR systems: TLS, Wearable Mobile Laser Scanning (WMLS) and iPad-based LiDAR Scanning (iPLS). Unlike prior studies that rely on manual segmentation or platform-tied algorithms, the proposed method integrates height thresholding (0.5 m), spatial clustering (DBSCAN), trunk validation (PCA) and least-squares circle fitting at 1.30 m to isolate and quantify tree stems. The workflow was tested on 18 field-surveyed trees in a semi-structured forest plot, with reference DBH values used for evaluation. TLS delivered the highest accuracy (MAE = 0.92 cm, RMSE = 1.10 cm, R-2 = 0.98), followed by WMLS (MAE = 2.15 cm, RMSE = 2.71 cm, R-2 = 0.92), which balanced portability with precision. iPLS showed reduced performance (MAE = 3.98 cm, RMSE = 4.42 cm, R-2 = 0.80) due to limited sensing range and data density. Additional issues included SLAM-induced trunk deformation in WMLS and segmentation artefacts in iPLS. These findings demonstrate that geometry-based, modular DBH estimation can be effectively applied across LiDAR platforms with varying resolution and mobility. The proposed framework fills a gap in cross-platform forestry workflows by enabling objective, reproducible and sensor-agnostic trunk measurements suitable for both research and applied inventory applications.
The Brazilian pulp and paper sector is highly influenced by the international market, making exchange rate fluctuations a key factor in the valuation of publicly traded companies. This study analysed the impact of changes in the Brazilian real against the US dollar and the euro on such companies listed on the Brazilian stock exchange (B3), using cointegration and error correction models. These methods assessed short- and long-term relationships between stock prices and exchange rates. Historical data showed trends and seasonality in stock prices and currency values, reflecting broader economic conditions and investor behaviour. The results indicate that fluctuations in the US dollar have a stronger and more lasting influence on the stock prices of these companies than those of the euro. Thus, the appreciation of the real, particularly against the dollar, tends to negatively impact the market value of pulp and paper companies, especially over the long term. It was noticed that the sanitary paper and packaging industries had increasing demands throughout 2020 due to the worsening of the COVID-19 pandemic. The cellulose and paper industries therefore had an opportunity for appreciation even though the world market was going through serious challenges.
Sirex noctilio (sirex) is a significant pest of Pinus plantations in the Southern Hemisphere. Biological control and stand management to reduce tree stress (e.g. thinning) are effective in managing sirex in commercial plantations, but the relative contribution of each of these in controlling a sirex outbreak is untested. In this study we attempt to disentangle the relative roles of 'top-down' (natural enemies) and 'bottom-up' (susceptible host tree availability) forces in regulating a sirex outbreak. We monitored a sirex outbreak in an unthinned Pinus radiata plantation in New South Wales to determine whether biological control alone could effectively reduce the sirex population. The plantation was 11 years old in 2015 when sirex attack was first detected and had very high stocking (3000-6500 s.p.h.) due to ineffective pine wildling control. Inoculation of naturally struck trees with the Kamona strain of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola began in 2016, with a total of 16 million nematodes inoculated up to 2019. By 2020, the outbreak had subsided with only a few sirex-attacked trees detected. Ground plots revealed that 40% of trees were struck by sirex and that suppressed trees and wildings were by far the most susceptible. The number of susceptible trees had significantly reduced by 2020, likely contributing to sirex control via reduced host availability, but there were still a substantial number of susceptible trees in the stand due to the large number of wildings. The wasp Ibalia leucospoides parasitised approximately 30% of sirex larvae, also contributing to control. Nematode parasitism increased steadily from <5% at the start of the outbreak to 95% of emerging female sirex being parasitised by 2019. This suggests successful anthropogenic intervention via inoculative biological control with Kamona nematodes played a major role in controlling the sirex outbreak. However, molecular examination of nematodes from emerging sirex revealed that none were Kamona; all were the newly discovered Lineage D strain. Thus, biocontrol of sirex with nematodes was primarily via adventive classical biocontrol, not inoculative biocontrol. The implications of this are discussed.
This study compared autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models and artificial neural networks (ANNs) in analysing Brazil's forest product production time series. Data on charcoal, pulp and composite wood panel production from 1961 to 2019 was sourced from the FAO database. Model performance was assessed using root mean squared error, mean absolute error and U-Theil statistics. The ARIMA model and ANNs showed similar predictive accuracy, however ARIMA delivered more consistent projections considering the historical trends of the analysed time series. Charcoal production has shown high variability in recent years, with expectations of stabilisation or decline due to COVID-19 impacts. Projections for pulp and wood panel production suggest potential growth, supported by Brazil's competitive advantages. However, the possibility of reduced forest product output due to global economic downturns must be considered.
Loss of arboreal connectivity can be detrimental to many forest-dependent species. Mitigation efforts focus on restoring opportunities for movement of arboreal mammals via rope bridges and other crossing aides and structures. These have been tested for major roads, but there is limited research regarding the effectiveness of rope bridges as road crossing aids for arboreal mammals in forested areas, subject to timber harvesting. Here we present a study where single rope bridges (100 mm in diameter) were placed in managed forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. These were monitored using remote cameras for a period of up to 30 months. We recorded bridge visit data to assess rope bridge use. We found that range of species utilising the bridges, with passerine birds making up 68% of our observations. Both volant and non-volant mammals were also observed, including the first report of the endangered southern greater glider (Petauroides volans) utilising a rope bridge. Our results show that single rope bridges over forest roads can aid faunal occurrence and movement around and across forest roads.
Forest tree breeding, especially for sawn timber purposes, is an important activity to circumvent the long history of predatory wood extraction in tropical ecosystems. Toona ciliata M. Roem is one of the most important species for timber production and has increasingly been planted worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. Despite its high timber value and ecological importance, there is little scientific knowledge about this species, such as its genetic variability and genetic breeding program structure. In this study we aimed to infer the structure of genetic variance in a population of Australian red cedar (Toona ciliata), rationalising selection for breeding populations using 70 progenies of T. ciliata from 13 provenances sampled on the east coast of Australia. Individual trees were phenotyped at four ages after planting, and the data of wood volume was adjusted with mixed linear models for subsequent estimation of genetic parameters. The results of the joint analyses of wood volume showed a medium-high degree of variance among T. ciliata provenances, with (${Q_{st}}$Qst) value of 0.26. The moderate narrow-sense individual heritability ($h_a<^>2$ha2) was estimated to range from 0.12-0.45. As the experiment progressed, there was a notable reduction in the variances between the provenances and progenies, along with an increase in residual variance with age. In this population, the total effective population size (${N_e}$Ne) was estimated to be 216. The significant genetic variability observed across different provenances and progenies introduced from Australia highlights the potential for selecting individuals with higher productivity for clonal trials.
Fuel breaks are strategically placed modified strips of vegetation that are widely used within fire prone forests around the world. They are used for a range of purposes, including active fire suppression, improving access and egress, and in prescribed burning operations. However, the structure of fuel breaks, strategies behind their use and their effectiveness in achieving their objectives has not been extensively documented. In Victoria, Australia, strategic fuel break programs are being developed resulting in an expanded network across the state. Understanding the structure, uses and effectiveness of strategic fuel breaks is critical for good fire management. Specifically, managers need this information to properly evaluate the ground crew safety and risk reduction benefits against the costs of implementation and ecological impacts. In this paper, we aimed to (i) better understand the current uses, features and placement of fuel breaks in Victoria, Australia; and (ii) estimate the effectiveness and strategic value of fuel breaks under a range of conditions. Using structured methods, we elicited expert judgements from Victorian fire managers, who considered a range of different landscape structures, fire scenarios and weather conditions. Results indicate that the use of fuel breaks during fire events generally decreased as fire weather conditions worsened. However, under more extreme conditions, fuel breaks were considered more important for asset protection and safety. Our findings support the idea that fuel breaks are an important tool for fire management, particularly in suppression efforts. Given the dangerous fire conditions accompanying climate change, and the constraints on collecting empirical data, expert knowledge on fire management techniques will become increasingly useful. A sound understanding of why and how managers make decisions under different fire conditions is key to evaluating strategic fuel break effectiveness in the future.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) offer high-resolution data essential for mapping forest canopy gaps. In this study, we employed UAV imagery and remote sensing techniques to generate detailed canopy gap maps and analyse the geometric complexity of gaps in a hybrid broadleaf forest in Daland Forest Park, Golestan Province, Iran. We compared multiple extraction methods, including thresholding based on canopy height and surface slope from the Canopy Height Model (CHM), as well as object-based classification using spectral features of UAV imagery and the YOLO11-seg deep learning model. Both point-based and polygon-based validations were conducted to assess the performance of each method. The most accurate gap map was obtained using a 5-metre height threshold on the CHM, achieving an overall accuracy of 97.46% and a kappa coefficient of 0.94. In the next step, the YOLO11-seg model provided a better result compared to the OBIA algorithms (96.95% accuracy and a kappa of 0.93). Polygon-based validation confirmed these results, with accuracies of 94.96% and 92.66% for the height threshold and YOLO11-seg model, respectively. Geometric analysis using the Gap Shape Complexity Index showed that the YOLO11-seg model closely matched the ground truth in gap size, shape and complexity. These findings underscore the potential of UAV-based approaches for accurate canopy gap analysis in complex forest ecosystems.
Forest above-ground biomass (AGB) is influenced by a combination of environmental factors and their effects on forest structure and composition, yet the primary drivers of AGB variation in tropical regions remain poorly understood. This study analysed data from 32 0.25-ha plots in the tropical forests of Phou Khao Khouay National Park, located in central Laos, to examine how elevation and soil conditions shape forest community structure, species diversity and AGB. Linear mixed effects and piecewise structural equation modelling were employed to assess these relationships. The results revealed that (i) soil nutrient availability exhibited significant spatial variability across the study area; (ii) elevation was positively correlated with species evenness but negatively correlated with AGB; and (iii) AGB, as a stand attribute, was directly influenced by stand density and species evenness (with opposing effects), while elevation indirectly affected AGB through its relationship with species evenness. These findings elucidate that site conditions (elevation and soil) govern stand structure and species diversity, which collectively determine AGB in tropical forests. Furthermore, while biodiversity conservation is fundamental, maintaining a sustainable stand structure (shaped by underlying environmental conditions) is critical for sustaining high AGB levels. This study underscores the importance of forest management strategies that prioritise site-specific ecological drivers to enhance carbon sequestration and ecosystem resilience.
Ultisols are commonly found in the tropics and are potentially suitable for plantation forestry. However, as well as being acidic (pH 5.0), they are commonly infertile and require fertiliser addition if commercial yields are to be achieved. A field experiment on a low productivity Ultisol at Lematang, South Sumatra, investigated the effect of seed source on the height, diameter and volume of Acacia mangium until age 36 months. Four seed sources were used: Ap = Papua, Indonesia; Aw = Wipim, Papua New Guinea; As = local source of Subanjeriji, Indonesia; Ad = Deri-deri, Cairns Region Queensland, Australia. A randomised complete block design with four replications accommodated two levels of P, 0 and 100 kg P ha-1 in a factorial combination with material from each of the four seed sources. Early responses were found to P, but by 36 months the responses were no longer significant. Significant effects of seed sources were found on diameter and volume at age 36 months. There was no significant interaction between treatments for all measured variables.
