The red dwarf honey bee Apis florea Fabricius 1787, a single open comb constructing honey bee native to Asia, has been expanding its distributional range to Africa and Europe, and also reportedly intercepted in Western Australia. The first fully established colony of A. florea in Europe was found in Malta in 2024 near its shipping freeport to the south. The comb was collected, stored, and analysed morphometrically. The following morphometric measurements are reported in this paper: height and width of the comb; surface area of the comb (including crest, worker brood, and drone brood); depth, diameter, and volume of the cells (worker brood, drone brood, and crest); and the angle of the comb against the vertical. The cell measurements were concordant with other cell measurements found in the literature. These data might serve as a reference point for future studies, focusing on comparison of comb morphometry between native and introduced colonies.
For this study, mitochondrial-level research was conducted into the stingless bee species Lepidotrigona arcifera in order to assemble the complete mitogenome sequence of L. arcifera, analyze its structural characteristics, and provide a more reliable and valuable taxonomic basis for resolving the complex phylogeny of Meliponini tribe. We obtained the complete mitogenome of L. arcifera, spanning 15,260 bp in length and comprising thirteen protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), twenty-two transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and a control region (D-loop). Phylogenetic analysis showed that L. arcifera has the closest genetic relationship with Lepidotrigona flavibasis (genus Lepidotrigona), followed by Lepidotrigona terminata (genus Lepidotrigona), and then Tetragonula pagdeni (genus Tetragonula), consistent with our previous findings. We further conducted a comparative analysis of structural variations across mitogenomes, revealing significant divergence in gene order and transcriptional orientation. The thirty-eight mitochondrial genes were categorized into four blocks (I-IV) and the D-loop. An inversion within Block IV distinguished L. arcifera from its closest relative L. flavibasis. Conserved block order was highly consistent within Melipona. Notably, Frieseomelitta varia (genus Frieseomelitta) and Tetragonisca angustula (genus Tetragonisca) formed a distinct clade and shared an identical block arrangement, which differed from other species. This study presents the first complete mitogenome sequence of L. arcifera, enriching the genomic resources for this taxon. More importantly, it reveals extensive mitochondrial gene rearrangements in stingless bees, suggesting that such structural variations represent valuable auxiliary molecular markers for stingless bee species classification.
\AbstractHoney bee colonies in the United States continue to experience health challenges driven by parasites, pathogens, and environmental stressors. To establish a statewide baseline for honey bee health in Utah, we conducted a multi pathogen and parasite survey of 429 feral and managed Apis mellifera colonies collected from seventeen counties across three major ecological regions between 2008 and 2021. Colonies were screened for Varroa destructor, Nosema apis, N. ceranae, Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae, and the bacterial symbionts Spiroplasma apis and S. melliferum. Overall pathogen and parasite occurrence in Utah was low: N. ceranae and L. passim were each detected in 7.3% of colonies, while V. destructor was found in 9.0% of colonies screened. No samples were positive for N. apis, Crithidia spp., or either Spiroplasma species. Pathogen prevalence did not differ significantly between feral and non-migratory managed colonies, but strikingly low Varroa levels were observed in A-lineage feral colonies, with only one of forty-four colonies (2.3%) testing positive. Pathogens and parasites were detected across all ecological regions, although prevalence varied geographically and among mitochondrial DNA lineages. These results provide the first comprehensive assessment of pathogens and parasites in Utah honey bees, establish a critical baseline for future monitoring, and highlight the need for targeted studies investigating the potential mite resistance or reduced exposure of Utah's A-lineage feral populations.
Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) may inhabit abandoned beehives in trees in the city and forests. Bees that naturally occupy abandoned nests, cavities, or hives are not managed by humans and are not treated for pathogens; consequently, they may be particularly susceptible to diseases. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prevalence of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Nosema spp. in free-living bee colonies through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The study was conducted on samples of adult bees, pupae, larvae, bee bread and honey. The pathogens were detected in two samples. The predominant pathogen was L. passim, which was found in adult bees and four-day-old larvae. In addition, Nosema apis was found only in bees. The results of this study indicate that pathogens may be present in apparently healthy bee colonies and their larvae. Early detection of pathogens in adult bees and larvae can enhance the effectiveness of veterinary treatment in apiaries.
Varroa mites (Varroa destructor) are a major threat to honey bee health globally. Oxalic acid has gained popularity among beekeepers as a potential varroa mite control agent. This study evaluated the efficacy of oxalic acid vaporisation for managing varroa mites in field conditions in Taiwan. Twenty-four colonies of Italian honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) were divided into six groups, each consisting of four colonies: a control (no treatment), four treatment groups receiving two, four, six or eight oxalic acid treatments bi-weekly, and a group treated with Flumethrin strips (40 mg flumethrin/strip). Oxalic acid was vaporized at a rate of approximately 2 g per beehive. After thirty-five days, colonies receiving six and eight oxalic acid vaporisations showed significant reductions in varroa mite infestations, by 86% and 97%, respectively. Moreover, significantly higher worker bee mortality was observed in colonies receiving four, six, or eight oxalic acid vaporisations compared to the control. These findings suggest that six or eight oxalic acid (2 g/hive) vaporisations can effectively control varroa mite infestations in honey bees under field conditions, however beekeepers should be aware of potential impacts on worker bee mortality.
This study examines how beekeepers perceive the benefits of digital platforms for customer relationships and strategic outcomes, and whether these perceptions differ based on their digital experience. Using a mixed-method approach, data were collected in 2024 in Poland through a survey of 949 beekeepers and 30 expert interviews. Quantitative results show that digitally experienced beekeepers reported higher perceived benefits across all customer relationship dimensions and most strategic ones, particularly in transparency and honey quality, as confirmed by Mann-Whitney U tests and a random forest model. No significant difference was found for customer loyalty, indicating that loyalty depends more on long-term relationships than digital proficiency. Qualitative insights revealed that digital platforms foster trust, support quality improvement, and strengthen beekeeper–customer connections. The study enhances our understanding of how digital experiences shape perceived benefits, and it also provides practical guidance for prioritizing platform features that promote transparency, quality monitoring, and effective communication.
Honeybees play a crucial ecological and economic role by pollinating both natural ecosystems and cultivated crops. Beyond this, they produce such valuable natural products as honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, beeswax, and bee venom, which have been used for centuries in traditional medicine. With the growing interest in natural compounds for disease prevention and treatment, apitherapy and bee-derived products have gained renewed attention. Among these, bee venom (BV) stands out due to its rich composition of bioactive molecules, including peptides such as melittin, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), apamin, mast cell degranulation peptide, secapin, and adolapin, as well as enzymes as hyaluronidase. These components are known for their therapeutic potential, particularly in inflammation and cancer-related applications. In this study, the cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing effects of Apis mellifera L. venom samples collected from fifty-one locations across T & uuml;rkiye were tested against seven human cancer cell lines (Caco-2, PC3, U-87MG, MDA-MB-231, A549, HeLa, Panc-1) and one healthy line (CCD-34Lu). Cytotoxicity was assessed with use of the MTT assay, and IC50 values ranged from 1.64 +/- 0.70 to 98.33 +/- 9.28 mu g/ml. Venoms from Ma & ccedil;ahel, Fara & scedil;in, K & imath;rklareli, D & uuml;zce, Adana, Hatay, and G & ouml;k & ccedil;eada were the most potent, influenced by bee ecotypes and protein content. PC3, PANC-1, and HeLa were the most sensitive cell lines, while Caco-2 and CCD-34Lu showed the highest resistance. In conclusion, the diverse venoms of A. mellifera in T & uuml;rkiye exhibit significant dose-dependent cytotoxic and apoptotic effects, positioning the country as a valuable source in venom-based therapeutic research.
The composition of extractive organic compounds of seven samples of Tenerife honey is reported here for the first time. In the extractive composition of the studied samples, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identified between 74 and 124 representatives of various classes of organic compounds, including aromatics, aliphatic acids, alcohols, and esters, as well as furofuran lignans, which are rarely found in honey. The chemical composition of extractives in the studied samples was highly specific: among 160 registered compounds, only forty were present in all seven samples. The most numerous groups, making the greatest contribution to the total ion current of the chromatograms, were formed by aromatic compounds, the main one being methyl syringate. The second most important group consisted of aliphatic acids, including a series of eleven even hydroxy acids C8-C12, characteristic of royal jelly and largely responsible for its outstanding antimicrobial activity. The high content of compounds with documented biological activity suggests the high therapeutic potential of the studied Tenerife honey samples.
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are essential pollinators but are facing numerous threats from such pathogens as Nosema spp., which disrupt gut function and colony health. The honey bee gut microbiota contributes to digestion, immunity, and defense; imbalances in this community can intensify disease outcomes. This study used a caged bee model to evaluate how propolis, a natural resinous compound produced by bees, impacts gut microbial composition, microbiota dynamics, Nosema infection severity, and survival. Propolis supplementation promoted the growth of beneficial bacterial genera, Bifidobacterium and Commensalibacter, while reducing the prevalence of opportunistic taxa. It also alleviated the negative influence of ethanol exposure on microbiota stability. Importantly, microbial diversity and structure were maintained more effectively in propolis-treated bees, even under infection stress. These findings highlight the potential of propolis as a natural therapeutic agent that supports microbial homeostasis and mitigates disease impacts in honey bees. By demonstrating the dual role of propolis in protecting both microbiota composition and host resilience, this research offers insights into sustainable strategies for enhancing bee health and combating colony losses.
Cryopreservation of honeybee (Apis melifera) drone semen remains a significant challenge. Despite decades of research, maintaining sperm viability and functionality after thawing continues to limit the practical use of frozen semen. This study investigated the effect of post-thaw dilution of cryopreserved drone semen with Bee Semen Solution (BSS) on semen viability and queen reproductive performance. Queen bees were instrumentally inseminated with fresh or cryopreserved semen, either undiluted or diluted with BSS after thawing. The impact of these treatments on the number and quality of spermatozoa in the spermatheca and on brood pattern was assessed. Cryopreservation markedly affected sperm quality and the reproductive performance of inseminated queens, resulting in lower sperm viability and reduced fertility compared with fresh semen. However, post-thaw dilution of semen with BSS tended to improve sperm parameters in the spermatheca and queen fertility. The results indicate that post-thaw handling of semen, including the use of appropriate diluents, may play an important role in improving the outcomes of insemination with dialysis method cryopreserved semen. We also emphasize that multiple insemination should be considered as a method of improving spermatozoa number in spermahteca and, consequently, queen fertility.
The extensive use of insecticides has raised concern regarding their toxicological risk to honey bee species, Apis florea (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Bees may come into contact with pesticides while foraging in the field to gather nectar and pollen from agricultural blooming plants, which cause the death of their workers. In this respect, the current study was conducted to evaluate the toxicity of certain commonly used insecticides against the population of A. florea. The concentrations tested in the residual bioassays were 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 ppm for abamectin, cypermethrin, imidacloprid, acetamiprid andpyriproxyfen, while for emamectin benzoate and carbosulfan, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 ppm. Each concentration was replicated three times. Our findings showed that the combination of emamectin benzoate and carbosulfan (LC50 0.54) was more toxic, followed by imidacloprid (LC50 0.70), acetamiprid (LC50 1.05), cypermethrin (LC50 1.57), pyriproxyfen (LC50 1.83) and abamectin (LC50 5.51). The present study shows the relative toxicity of various insecticides on A. florea besides the generalization that combinations of two insecticides (synergism) are more toxic to A. florea than a single insecticide. Therefore, combinations should be avoided for the management of insect pests.
The Maltese Islands host an endemic honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera ruttneri. However, apiculture based on the imported foreign subspecies and strains greatly threatens the native A. m. ruttneri's status through hybridisation. This study examined the morphometric attributes of selected A. m. ruttneri colonies (n=34) on Gozo, following several years of operation of a commercial queen rearing enterprise using foreign subspecies and strains. Additionally, colonies of A. m. ruttneri (n=21) from neighbouring Malta were also examined, where the importation of foreign honey bee colonies has been ongoing for a significantly longer time. Sampling was carried out between August and November 2021. Traditional and geometric morphometry were used for wing analysis, with separate discriminant analysis classification models applied to each approach. Results revealed clear hybridisation trends in both Gozitan and Maltese sub-populations of A. m. ruttneri. These findings align with and echo concerns regarding local honey bee decline. This study underscores the urgent need for more decisive and concrete actions to holistically protect the Maltese honey bee and its vital role in local apiculture.
Queen isolation, the prevention of egg laying in autumn and winter, is beneficial in temperate climates. Brood rearing in autumn weakens colonies because feeding the larvae shortens the lives of bees. Workers which emerge during this time do not live until spring; moreover, winter stores are used for their rearing. The Chmara isolator consists of two queen excluders only 1 cm apart, which is why bees do not build a comb in it. The queen is isolated for more than three weeks; the absence of a sealed brood allows for successful control of the Varroa destructor. The aim of the study was to investigate queen mortality and spring development in bee colonies after the use of the Chmara isolator in the autumn and winter. All together, seventy-eight colonies were examined during a three-year period. In half of the colonies, the queens were closed in Chmara isolators for five or six months, from either September or October till March. Three queens died during the winter, one in an isolator and two in colonies without an isolator. Colonies, in which a Chmara isolator was used in autumn and winter, reared significantly more brood in spring compared to colonies without an isolator.
On May 1, 2024, twenty years passed since Poland's accession to the European Union. This two-decade period of membership has significantly influenced the development of beekeeping in the country. EU integration provided Polish beekeepers with access to funding and support programs that facilitated the expansion of professional training, modernization of apiaries, improvement of colony health, enhancement of honey quality, and support for the restoration and improvement of bee genetic stock. The aim of this study was to assess quantitative and structural changes in Polish beekeeping based on data from 2024. During the analyzed period, the number of honeybee colonies increased to 2.42 million, while the number of registered beekeepers reached 99,000. Despite this stable production potential, the sector remains dominated by low-commercial apiaries - nearly two-thirds of beekeeping operations maintain no more than twenty colonies. The share of professional apiaries is marginal (0.7%), limiting the sector's investment and market capacity. The average colony density is 7.7 colonies per km(2), with considerable regional variation reflecting spatial and structural diversity. The age profile of beekeepers is skewed toward older age groups, which may pose a long-term barrier to innovation adoption and generational succession. Despite several positive developments, the sector has shown signs of slowing growth dynamics, indicating the need for further strategic support and adaptation.
This study investigates the extent of digital technology adoption among Polish beekeepers and how socio-demographic factors influence this adoption. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 30 beekeeping experts and a survey of 949 randomly selected beekeepers. A Random Forest machine learning algorithm was employed to predict digital adoption, and SHAP values were applied to interpret the model's output. The findings reveal that only 28.6% of beekeepers have adopted digital technologies. Experts highlighted several key themes related to adoption, including the perceived need for technology, types of technologies used, data collection practices, benefits for management and marketing, as well as associated risks and challenges. Among the socio-demographic factors, beekeeping experience had the strongest impact on digital technology adoption, followed by formal education in apiculture and the beekeeper's age. These factors allowed the identification of three distinct beekeeper profiles: education- and engagement-driven beekeepers, experience-driven beekeepers, and highly experienced beekeepers. These insights can help beekeeping associations and policymakers promote the effective adoption of digital tools to support more sustainable and efficient apiary management.
The aim of the study was to determine whether honey imported to Poland from Ukraine meets the quality standards and whether it is free of residues of plant protection products in accordance with the maximum permissible residue levels (MRLs). Due to the relatively small number of samples analysed (n=20), the results obtained in our study may not be fully representative for Ukrainian honey imported to Poland. Nevertheless, the pollen spectrum of Ukrainian honeys imported to Poland is characteristic for the climatic zone of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. The majority of honey imported from Ukraine to Poland meet the quality requirements stated in EU regulations. Residues of plant protection products in Ukrainian honey imported to Poland do not exceed the MRLs. Adherence to quality standards and regular monitoring of honey parameters imported from Ukraine to Poland are key to ensuring the high quality and safety of honey on the Polish market.
Tenerife’s melliferous flora is characterised by the presence of a large number of endemic species and a distinct zonation of their growth, which determines the local production of unique varieties of honey not found in other parts of the world. For the first time, the composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in Tenerife honey was studied through the use of nine samples of monofloral (broom, tajinaste, tedera, relinchon, and barrilla) and four samples of multifloral honeys. The VOC composition of the studied samples contained 110 representatives of various classes of organic compounds identified by headspace microextraction in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS): terpenes, alkanes and alkenes, aliphatic and aromatic alcohols and acids, carbonyl compounds, as well as several S-, N- and Cl-containing substances. The chemical composition of the samples turned out to be highly specific; only twenty two compounds were detected in all nine samples. The distinct zonation of Tenerife’s honey flora is reflected in the VOC composition of the studied samples. For example, syringic acid hydrazide, a rare component of honey, is completely absent in honey from “high mountain” apiaries but is contained in noticeable quantities in honey from apiaries located at low altitudes. The presence of methyl 3,5-dimethoxybenzoate in Tenerife honeys, as well as some norterpenoids, indicates the likelihood of their high antioxidant and bactericidal activity.
Instrumental insemination of queen bees that have started laying eggs is used extremely rarely. It is one of the methods for obtaining diploid drones, but it is believed that the queen must stop laying eggs for at least five days before insemination, e.g. by placing her in a mesh cage in her colony, in order to deactivate the ovaries. According to unpublished information, re-insemination of queens with active ovaries causes their death. The aim of this work was to verify this information. The results of our experiments show that re-insemination does not affect the survivability of queens with active ovaries and can be performed without prior interruption of egg laying.
Data on cosmetic sales has grown significantly recently, with consumers increasingly choosing natural cosmetics or biocosmetics. The natural ingredient that has received attention recently is stingless bee propolis. Stingless bee propolis has been utilized in cosmetics manufacturing and has been extensively studied for its beneficial properties for the skin, including anti-acne, anti-aging, and skin-whitening properties. This review comprehensively analyzes the potential of stingless bee propolis for anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-wrinkle, anti-melanogenesis, and sunscreen activity. The chemical compound that has been found in stingless bee propolis and can be used in biocosmetics, including p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, catechin, quercetin, apigenin, kaempferol, glyasperin, broussoflavonol, rutin, methyldiplacone, nymphaeol, geranyl flavonol, oleic acid, palmitic acid, ascorbic acid, and tocopherol. The potential applications of stingless bee propolis in biocosmetics are significant, and there are numerous benefits of using it. Further research is needed to understand its potential applications and benefits for the skin.
Identification of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) subspecies is an important aspect of bee breeding and biodiversity conservation. The identification can be based on molecular or morphological markers. For some markers, including the cytochrome c oxidase subunit, there is a well-established methodology allowing consistent subspecies identification in different laboratories. In the case of morphological markers, identification is hindered by a lack of reference data and a standardized methodology to reuse it. There is the Morphometric Bee Data Bank in Oberursel, Germany, which provides reliable reference data for many honey bee subspecies; however, it must be expanded and updated. Moreover, there is a need for standardized protocols that allow reliable identification of unknown samples. We show here that reference data for the identification of honey bees based on geometric morphometrics can be saved in an XML file. The information in this file can be easily extracted by other users for the identification of unknown samples. We illustrate this procedure using ten samples from north India. The samples were identified as A. mellifera; next, they were identified as lineage C; and finally, most of the samples had high similarity to honey bees from Croatia and Slovenia. We explained what data is required for such identification and how it can be reused. The method described here works correctly only if the identified species or subspecies is well represented in the reference samples. Without reference data from America, we could not confirm the importation of honey bees to India from this region.
