There is a growing interest in finding sustainable alternatives to conventional chemical pesticides in order to protect both our environment and biodiversity. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) have been characterized as promising biological control agents, offering a safer approach to soil dwelling pest management. Going beyond soil applications, while protective formulations have shown some success, foliar application of EPNs is also gaining interest. Apart from the still open question of whether EPNs survive in the foliar environment and control pests effectively, there is also to be answered which are the potential effects on beneficial insects such as bees. This study investigates whether foliar application of EPNs poses a risk to honey bees (Apis mellifera). When 9 EPN species from the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis were tested, significant mortality was observed in honey bees, with Steinernema riobrave and Steinernema carpocapsae are particularly virulent. Two exposure methods (direct spraying and indirect filter paper) and three exposure periods (24, 48 and 72 h) resulted in higher bee mortality with the direct spraying method, attributed to direct contact with the nematodes and their infection, with all species to be significant virulent compared to control while only 1 out of 9 showed significance in filter paper experiment 72 h after treatment. Dissection of dead bees confirmed the presence of nematodes, in the thorax and trachea. Furthermore, context-specific risk assessments, especially for foliar applications against plant pests, are crucial for developing sustainable agricultural practices that protect pollinator populations. This research contributes to understanding the ecological implications of EPNs use and emphasizes the need for a balanced approach that ensures food security while maintaining biodiversity.
Honey bee venom (HBV) is a complex toxin produced by honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) for colony defense. While HBV shows promise for apitherapy and cosmetics applications, optimizing its production remains a crucial yet understudied challenge in apiculture. This study investigated the impact of supplemental feeding strategies and venom harvesting devices on both the quantity and quality of HBV. Four feeding groups (control, sugar syrup, base product and protein-enriched syrup) were established, and venom was harvested using three domestically produced harvesting devices. HBV quality, assessed via HPLC-UV for apamin, melittin, and PLA2 content, and color analysis, was significantly influenced by both diet and device. Protein-enriched feed increased venom quality, while sugar syrup increased quantity but dramatically lowered quality compared to the control. Among the harvesting devices, old generation ALMISLAR-I devices harvest significantly lower venom quantity and quality compared to the new generation ULTRABEE and APIMAK devices. Color analysis revealed a lighter venom color (7499-C) with the galvanized wire APIMAK device compared to the chromium wire devices. These findings highlight the importance of optimizing feeding strategies to avoid sugar syrup feeding and harvesting technologies to maximize the quantity and quality of HBV for therapeutic and cosmetic applications. By optimizing both bee diet and harvesting equipment, we can ensure the sustainable production of high-quality honey bee venom for research and therapeutic applications, while safeguarding bee health and promoting responsible apitherapy practices.
The aim of this study is to characterize 10 samples of citrus honey produced by Apis mellifera, harvested and obtained directly from beekeepers all over northern Alegria (east, center, and west) in April 2022. The physical-chemical composition was determined using official methods (pH, Humidity, Acidity, HMF, Electrical conductivity (EC), Total sugar, Ash, Density, Viscosity, and Brix), the antioxidant potential using radical scavenging methods (DPPH and ATBS), as well as assessing their level of contamination by insecticide residues using QuEChERS-LC-MS/MS and the content of total polyphenols using the Folin-Ciocalteu method and total flavonoids using the aluminum trichloride (AlCL3) method. The results obtained show physicochemical parameters were within the standards of the food Codex , total polyphenol content varied from 170.25 to 420.25 mg GAE/kg, and flavonoids from 15.2 to 123. 2 mg QE/100 g, radical scavenging activity varied from 239.75 to 1483.42 & micro;g/mL for DPPH and from 1190 to 1718 & micro;g/mL for ATBS. All samples are contaminated with at least one of the five insecticides analyzed. Acetamiprid and imidacloprid were present in all samples, with minimum concentrations of 1.74 ng/g and 3.45 ng/g, respectively. Consumption of some samples contained insecticides present health risk for children of 20 kg.
Honey bees are important pollinators that suffer from several diseases. The most devastating brood disease is American foulbrood, caused by Paenibacillus larvae, a bacterium with two main genotypes, ERIC I and ERIC II. Since these differ significantly in virulence, genotype differentiation enables the establishment of genotype-specific control measures and disease prevention. Therefore, an easy-applicable, fast and cheap laboratory diagnostic test is needed, especially for laboratories without the capability to perform PCR analysis. This study focused on the development of sandwich ELISAs that detect P. larvae in suspected larvae/pupae samples and are able to distinguish between the P. larvae with genotypes ERIC I and ERIC II. We generated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that enable the specific detection of P. larvae of both genotypes (limit of detection (LOD) > 3.8 & times; 10(2) CFU/mL), with 100% accuracy in in vitro-infected 5- and 6-day-old larvae compared with PCR detection, and also allow discrimination of P. larvae with the ERIC II genotype (LOD > 3.1 & times; 10(2) CFU/mL). A new sandwich ELISA kit was developed for the rapid detection of P. larvae with genotype differentiation. A storage stability test showed that its components, plates coated with mAbs and the ELISA reagents, are stable for at least 11 months stored at 4 degrees C.
This study, conducted in the Indian Sundarbans, represents the first systematic assessment of how fencing materials influence carpenter bee communities. Quantitative community parameters, including abundance, frequency, and density of large carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.) and small carpenter bees Ceratina spp., were evaluated across farms with biological and synthetic fences. In the rural Sundarbans, biological fencing refers to woody plant-based farm boundary barriers constructed from dense stems, branches, and twig mesh supported by vertical wooden poles, whereas synthetic nylon fencing lacks these woody structural components. Farms with biological fencing exhibited significantly higher carpenter bee diversity and species richness (Mann-Whitney U test), underscoring the role of bee-friendly fences in supporting pollinator communities. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination further revealed a clear separation of carpenter bee assemblages between fencing types. Woody fences provide essential nesting substrates for cavity-nesting bees, while synthetic fencing reduces nesting opportunities, particularly for small carpenter bees. Notably, this study documents for the first time the use of the native mangrove Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W. Theob. and exotic Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. as nesting resources for Ceratina (Pithitis) binghami, Xylocopa (Koptortosoma) aestuans, and Xylocopa (Ctenoxylocopa) fenestrata (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apidae). In addition, it provides detailed observations on the nesting architecture and biology of C. binghami, contributing novel ecological insights into these important pollinators.
One hundred and fifty newly emerged worker bees were transferred into Pain-type cages. The experiment included five replicates per batch: five cages for the control, five for bees treated with 10 mM lithium chloride (LiCl), and five for bees treated with 25 mM LiCl. Pollen paste and syrup consumption were measured at 7 and 14 d. Worker bees were sampled at 0, 7, and 14 d for hemolymph extraction (to measure protein, lipid, and sugar content) and for dissection of hypopharyngeal glands (HPGs) and ovaries. Oxidative stress marker levels were also quantified. The results revealed that LiCl treatment did not significantly affect food consumption (pollen paste and syrup). Protein, sugar, and lipid levels in the hemolymph increased with age (p < 0.001) without any effect from LiCl. HPGs development was significantly reduced by 25 mM LiCl at 7 d (p = 0.003) and by both concentrations at 14 d (p < 0.001). Ovarian development was significantly inhibited by 25 mM LiCl at 7 d (p < 0.001) and 14 d (p = 0.016), whereas 10 mM had no significant effect. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and antioxidant capacity were not affected by LiCl but varied with age. These results suggest that a high dose of LiCl (25 mM) disrupts HPG and ovarian development in honey bees without inducing measurable oxidative stress.
Honey bee deaths are considered a major global concern. Therefore, epidemiological investigation and continuous monitoring of pathogens or parasites in honey bee colonies are essential for the prevention and control of these diseases. This study investigated the prevalence of honey bee pathogens and parasites across Kosovo between 2019 and 2024. Using molecular techniques, primarily PCR-based methods, adult honey bee samples collected from 36 apiaries were analyzed for the presence of nine viruses (ABPV, BQCV, CBPV, DWV, IAPV, KBV, SBV, VDV-1 and AmFV), two Vairimorpha species (V. apis and V. ceranae), and Paenibacillus larvae, the causative agent of American foulbrood (AFB). Six viruses were determined in 35 apiaries (97.2%), whereas CBPV, KBV and IAPV were not detected in any apiary. BQVC (83.3%) and AmFV (83.3%) were the most prevalent viruses, followed by VDV-1 (80.5%), DWV (41.6%), SBV (33.3%) and ABPV (30.5%). While V. apis was not detected in any apiary, V. ceranae was detected in 16 apiaries (44.4%). Paenibacillus larvae was detected in 13 apiaries (36.1%); genotyping revealed that ten isolates belonged to the ERIC I genotype, while three isolates were classified as ERIC II. Multiple infection with two or more pathogens was observed in 35 apiaries (97.2%). The most complex multiple infection profile was identified in apiary 3 from Gjilan, which was positive for ABPV, BQCV, DWV, AmFV, SBV, VDV-1, P. larvae and V. ceranae. These findings could contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology and dynamics of honey bee pathogens in Kosovo and may support the development of effective strategies to reduce disease transmission among colonies and apiaries.
