The geology of the State of Qatar comprises large spans of carbonate rocks at the surface and evaporitic rocks at shallow depth, and a number karst features (depressions, caves) spread across the country that may cause challenges during land development or infrastructure construction. The government of Qatar has identified that existing geodatabases and geological and hydrogeological maps require improvement to mitigate this risk. In this framework, a thorough assessment of the karst geohazard has been performed including a karst features survey, geologic study of karstification, and an assessment of associated ground subsidence related to karst. The main findings indicate the existence of two types of caves: one corresponding to shallow subsurface dissolution caves developed under phreatic conditions in the past and truncated by erosion at a later stage, the other corresponding to large roof collapse caves originating at depth (intrastratal karst). These latter caves are systematically located on the edge of large depressions. In agreement with the existing literature, it is proposed that the depressions and collapse caves are part of a same collapse/sagging process caused by loss of material at depth (e.g., dissolution of evaporites, compaction of weathered dolostone, or incremental collapse of coalesced relict caves). To extract the karst collapse depressions among the large number of depressions mapped using a recent (2017) LiDAR DTM dataset, it is hypothesized that the karst depressions shall have the same geometrical characteristics (width, length, area, depth) than the few ones containing a roof collapse cave. This results in the identification and mapping of 3537 karst depressions spread across the entire Qatar peninsula. Presently, these karst features seem mostly inactive and thus inherited from a geoclimatic context, which was more favorable to karstification. Under the present geoclimatic conditions, the karst subsidence geohazard appears to be generally low, as caves are inherited, and ongoing karstification processes are limited. However, this geohazard is present across large spans of the territory and any future land development shall include plans and strategies to consider the presence of karstified rocks in the subsurface and ensure that karst is not reactivated by human activity.
The Südwandhöhle, located in the Dachstein karst massif, is a 12 km long cave system. It is primarily formed in dolomite (Middle Triassic Wetterstein Formation), a rare occurrence in the Northern Calcareous Alps. The cave is 509 m deep and notable for its rock overburden of 1.5 km, and its huge passage cross-sections of up to 250 m². In the remote parts, there is a 0.7 km-long tube that is almost entirely formed in lithified clastic cave sediments. The setting suggests that this relatively small tube (cross-sections: 0.5 to 2 m²) developed as a continuation of a large palaeo-phreatic gallery. The walls and ceilings of the tube are made up of well-lithified sandstone, which often shows erosional features. The sandstone components consist of calcite, partly dedolomite, as well as some quartz, small amounts of dolomite, and iron hydroxide. The cement is calcite, giving a total calcite content of 40–70% in the analysed thin sections. Unusually, the tube does not run along the ceiling of the corridor, as is common in many caves, but winds its way through the large, sediment-filled corridor. As there are no structures in the calcareous sandstone or active tectonics that could have acted as initial fissures, the formation of the proto-conduit is difficult to explain. One possible explanation is that the sand was cemented by pore water from the surrounding dolomite host rock, with parts inside being less lithified or not consolidated at all. Water migrating through this porous sand could have dissolved carbonate grains, and subsequent mechanical erosion and eventually piping could have created a tube. Due to the carbonate content, dissolution probably played only a limited role. Therefore, we interpret this tube as a pseudo-karst cave, that was formed primarily through mechanical erosion of sandstone that had deposited within a karst cave.
The surface temperature of cave walls is important, particularly as a factor controlling water condensation and calcite corrosion, as well as in paleoclimatic reconstructions of external annual temperatures. The use of a non-contact IR thermometer (NCT) could provide an alternative method for monitoring wall surface temperature in inaccessible passages of the cave. However, temperatures obtained by the standard NCT showed increased error. The accuracy of the NCT was tested by comparison with a calibrated contact thermometer (CCT), which revealed a systematic error of –8.2 ± 1.2 °C for the right wall and –8.3 ± 0.9 °C for the left wall. Calibration with the equations T = 0.478×NCT + 8.254 (right wall) and T = 0.554×NCT + 8.308 (left wall) corrected this error. Uncertainty was tested by repeated measurements on a calibration area of 1.7 m2 in the cave, resulting in a random relative error of 4.25 % for dry wall surfaces and 4.95 % for wet wall surfaces. Although a relative error of 5 % is common for major instrumental methods, it is near the applicability limit for karstological interpretations.
This study investigates the seasonal microclimate dynamics of Samograd Cave (Croatia), a vadose karstic cave characterized by a single large entrance, a concave longitudinal profile, and active atmospheric coupling with the surface. Continuous air-temperature monitoring using data loggers was conducted along a surface-entrance-interior transect at five fixed locations over the period December 2022 – February 2024, covering two winters and one warm season. To independently assess ventilation efficiency and confirm microclimatic bimodality, air CO₂ concentrations were measured using a combination of spot monthly measurements along the cave and high-resolution continuous monitoring at the lowest point of the cave. The primary aim of the study was to evaluate how temperature differences between the surface and the cave controls seasonal air circulation and to determine whether air circulation in the cave is governed by temperature- and density-driven exchange flow. Results show that Samograd Cave exhibits a distinctly bimodal microclimate. During the cold season, negative surface-cave temperature differences promote the inflow of cold, dense air, activating an exchange flow that ventilates the cave interior and leads to an evident decrease in CO2 concentrations. In contrast, during the warm season, such circulation is switched off, resulting in thermal stratification, microclimatic stability, and elevated CO2 levels, with the cave acting as an efficient cold-air trap. Statistical analysis of air-temperature variability, surface-cave correlations, and CO2-temperature relationships demonstrates that the magnitude and persistence of seasonal thermal gradients, rather than the frequency of cold events alone, govern ventilation intensity. The combined temperature and CO2 evidence provides robust confirmation of the seasonal coupling between surface conditions and cave microclimate and supports the interpretation of Samograd Cave as a bimodal microclimate system.
Kef El Ghar cave, located in the Taza region of northeastern Morocco, is a remarkable karst feature of significant natural and cultural value. This study aims to characterize the cave’s geodiversity and assess its significance as a karst geosite. Field investigations and descriptive analyses reveal well-developed karst morphologies, stratigraphic exposures, active hydrological systems, and diverse speleothems, highlighting the cave’s natural significance. In addition, evidence of historical human use, archaeological traces, and aesthetic features emphasize its cultural importance. Despite these attributes, the site faces increasing threats from uncontrolled access, lack of formal protection, and anthropogenic degradation. Based on these findings, this study proposes conservation and management strategies to preserve the cave’s integrity and promote its integration into regional geotourism and public education initiatives. Kef El Ghar cave thus represents a valuable component of the karst heritage of the Taza region and supports initiatives aimed at the establishment of a regional geopark.
Allochthonous cave sediments contain important paleontological and archaeological records as well as indicators of recent ecological processes. Correct interpretation of these records requires knowledge about the sediment sources and deposition processes, in particular the interrelation of vertical and lateral sediment transport. Compared to platform karst, knowledge about tropical mountainous karstic geosystems is quite limited. To trace the origin and transportation pathways of sediments, we investigated Atl Cave in the Sierra Zongolica Mountain range, Veracruz, Mexico. Field exploration and mapping have shown that the cave presents two horizontal stages representing phreatic conduits and ancient stability stages and is an epigenetic cave with a point recharge zone at the entrance, which is fed by a stream. A comparative study of the surface soil profiles and the diamicton facies of the cave floor deposits included field morphological description, micromorphological observations, grainsize analysis, colorimetry, bulk chemical composition via XRF, and clay mineral identification by XRD. The results demonstrate that the cave deposits have more similarities with the young alluvial and colluvial soils near the entrance than with mature Terra Rossa developed over the limestone formation that hosts the cave. This proves the predominant role of the lateral alluvial transport by high energy events in the formation of the cave diamicton with very restricted contribution of the vertical erosion of Terra Rossa. The main source rock for alluvial and colluvial materials transported to the cave are siliciclastic sediments of the Necoxtla formation, whereas Terra Rossa soils were formed from tephra of the Orizaba volcano. High CIA values, high clay content with a predominance of kaolinite, point to greater weathering of Terra Rossa in comparison with other studied surface and underground materials.
Cultivation practices significantly impact soil functionality and quality, however, the effects of different cultivation durations remain inadequately quantified in the fragile karst ecosystems of southwestern China. This study employed a chronosequence approach to assess agricultural soil quality changes and identify their key drivers. Five land-use stages were selected and sampled: a natural reserve forest (NR) as a reference, recently burned land (0 a), and cultivated lands with durations of 1, 5, 15, and 30 years (1 a, 5 a, 15 a, 30 a, respectively) in the subtropical karst region of southwestern China. The soil quality index (SQI) was constructed using both the Total Data Set (TDS) and Minimum Data Set (MDS) methods. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified calcium (Ca), silt content and silicon (Si) as the key indicators within the MDS. Both TDS and MDS assessments revealed a progressive decline in SQI with increasing cultivation duration following slash-and-burn practices (R²=0.67 between TDS- and MDS-derived SQIs), indicating that agricultural activities significantly alter soil physicochemical properties and lead to soil degradation. The observed decrease in soil quality may be explained by two main mechanisms: (1) depletion of the soil-forming matrix in shallow karst environments; and (2) accelerated loss of acid-insoluble residues due to enhanced weathering under cultivation. These findings highlight the high vulnerability of karst soils to long-term farming, where inherently limited pedogenic materials and intense chemical weathering collectively exacerbate quality decline. This study provides critical insights for developing sustainable land management strategies in karst regions, emphasizing the importance of practices that conserve soil fertility, reduce residue loss, and maintain essential ecosystem services. With the MDS model explaining 67% of the variance in the TDS-based SQI, it represents an efficient and practical tool for monitoring soil quality in fragile karst environments, thereby supporting evidence-based sustainable land use planning.
There are 23 carbonate karst areas in Albania with a total area of 6440 km2, or 24% of the country’s territory. Karst aquifers are the richest in the country and about 80% of the water supply for the population living in cities is supplied by karst water. One of the most interesting karst massifs of Albania is called Mali me Gropa (MMG) with a total surface area of 157 km2. It is the subject of this paper. Although this massif has attracted attention due to its exceptional development of surface karst landforms (karst pits, sinkholes, swallow holes) and its large and high-quality groundwater resources, it has not been the subject of comprehensive research. In this paper, for the first time, is a summary of the results of a combination of specialized studies, including geomorphological characterization, analysis of long-term groundwater regime observations in relationship with meteorological data, water balance studies applying the recently developed WaterbalANce software method, assessment of groundwater quality and its variability, determination of the groundwater flow velocity with an artificial tracer, and the use of hydrochemistry and runoff data to determine groundwater flow patterns and sensitivity of spring water to contamination. The results of the multi-method studies conducted on the MMG karst massif will inform future studies of the numerous carbonate karst regions in Albania. A final important objective of this article is to raise public awareness about the vulnerability of karst waters and the need to protect the associated ecosystem, especially now that the MMG karst massif is in the spotlight for tourism development.
Professor Ira Sasowsky is Professor of Geosciences at the University of Akron, USA, who has made many outstanding scientific contributions to the karstological community in karst hydrogeology, geomorphology, geochemistry and dating. He completed his undergraduate studies in geology at the University of Delaware and defended his doctoral thesis at Pennsylvania State University. He is known by his colleagues and students for his broad knowledge and experience gained during his extensive field work early in his career in oil fields and later in various parts of the world (Brazil, Croatia, Italy, Slovenia, Spain, USA). His research focuses on groundwater flow in carbonate aquifers, sediment transport and palaeomagnetic dating of cave deposits. He has authored numerous scientific papers and book chapters, edited several scholarly volumes and mentored many undergraduate and graduate students. He has received many honours, to name just few of them: Outstanding Teacher Award (Eastern Section American Association of Petroleum Geologists), Science Award (National Speleological Society), Distinguished Service Award (Geological Society of America, Hydrogeology Division), Presidential Citation (Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists), and Service Recognition Award (Karst Waters Institute). Prof Sasowsky is active in many geoscience professional organisations in the USA and abroad.
The proclamation of 13 September as the International Day of Caves and Karst (IDCK) by the UNESCO General Conference in Samarkand on 12 November 2025 represents a historic achievement for the international cave and karst community. The initiative, submitted by the Republic of Slovenia following the proposal of the International Union of Speleology (UIS), was developed through close cooperation with the Slovenian National Commission for UNESCO, the Republic of Slovenia Ministry of Natural Resources and Spatial Planning, the Permanent Delegation of Slovenia to UNESCO, and the Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU in Postojna.
We present and analyze measurements of CO₂ concentration and air temperature taken during the peak tourist season of 2017 in Lepe Jame, a poorly ventilated passage within Postojnska Jama, Slovenia. During the study, the passage was visited by between 5500 and 6500 visitors per day. Both parameters show pronounced diurnal fluctuations, primarily driven by visitor activity. As part of our campaign, we tested and confirmed the effectiveness of enhanced ventilation—achieved by opening the artificial tunnel connecting Postojnska Jama to Črna Jama—in preventing excessively high CO₂ concentrations. The measure is, however, questionable, as it affects the microclimate in Črna Jama. Although CO₂ concentration and temperature are correlated, notable differences emerge in the shapes of their respective rise and recession curves. Temperature increases more rapidly with the arrival of visitors, while it decreases more slowly after visiting hours compared to CO₂. This lag is attributed to thermal storage: heat from visitors is absorbed by the cave walls during the day and gradually released into the cave during the night.
The Iskrets spring is one of the most significant karst springs in Bulgaria. А specific feature of this spring are irregular and abrupt reductions of its discharge after some earthquakes as well as other reasons related to the recharge. This study aims to present a reasonable hypothesis for the reasons of the discharge interruptions. A main feature of the Iskrets karst system is the fact that it is dominated by unconfined water flow in the unsaturated zone with velocities varying in a wide range. This creates conditions for significant erosion, transport and redeposition of the fluvial cave sediments. As a result, in the zones where there is a sharp decrease in the water velocity, a considerable accumulation of sediments occurs which can even fill the entire section of the passage-way and leads to a temporary blocking of the spring discharge. It is supposed that an appropriate section where this happens is located near to the discharge point of the spring. Most likely the main reason for the cave deposit displacement is the soil liquefaction caused by the seismic impact. It has been found that the duration of the discharge interruption period is longer at low water flow rates.
Salmonella spp. is a bacteria that can be transmitted between humans and bats through feces, food, and water contamination in the environment, causing foodborne illness. This bacterial infection will be more hazardous if the bacteria become resistant to antibiotics. Bats are wild animals that have the potential to spread resistant germs into the human environment because their habitats are where they live and forage is shrinking, forcing bats to migrate from their natural habitat to the human environment. Bats never receive antibiotics but can contaminated by bacteria was resistance antibiotics because they have close contact with humans, animals, and the environment. They are contaminated with resistant bacteria when they look for food and drink. Our research focuses on identifying the resistance that exists in Salmonella spp. bats in caves because it can endanger public health. The miss net is set at the cave’s mouth between 4 to 10 pm, the miss net is checked periodically. If a bat is caught, it is swabbed with a sterile cotton bud and then examined for Gram staining and biochemistry to identify bacteria. Salmonella spp. isolates were evaluated for antibiotic sensitivity with tetracycline, azithromycin, cefotaxime, amoxicillin, gentamicin, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, and ciprofloxacin. We successfully isolated nine Salmonella spp bacteria. The sensitivity test results showed that Salmonella spp. bacteria from cave bats in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, were resistant to the antibiotics azithromycin 77.7%, amoxicillin 22.2%, and tetracycline 11.1%.
The exposed stone blocks of soft carbonate rock, from which the pyramid is built, quickly develop a distinctive form and rock relief. The outer parts of the blocks are often undercut into overhangs. On their upper parts, a protective crust forms through rock dissolution and rapid recrystallization under the influence of occasional rain and seeping water, shielding the rock from wind erosion and dissolution. This crust, in turn, is dotted by small pits, whose bare surfaces remain exposed to wind erosion, allowing them to expand and grow deeper. In the lower sections, where the rock is fully exposed, wind erosion primarily carves out larger cups and channels. A thin crust may occasionally form over these sections, but tends to flake off quickly. This process suggests rapid karstification and the ongoing disintegration of the stone blocks.
Velika Pasica Cave, situated on a karst plateau at an altitude of 665 meters above sea level, offers a unique record of paleontological, speleological, and tectonic processes. The cave, predominantly filled with allogenic sediments and speleothems, contains fossilized remains of the aquatic cave invertebrate Marifugia cavatica and terrestrial small mammals, characteristic of the early Pliocene (MN15–16). Paleontological dating estimates the cave sediments to be approximately 4 Ma old, while U/Th dating of the overlying flowstone indicates deposition at 410 ± 21 ka. These findings suggest that stagnant phreatic conditions prevailed prior to tectonic uplift and basin subsidence, which reshaped the karst landscape. This study highlights the dynamic interplay between neotectonics, karst system evolution, and biodiversity changes. By integrating speleobiology, geomorphology, and biostratigraphy, it provides valuable insights into the environmental history of the northern Dinarides and the impact of geological processes on karst ecosystems.
Mesostalita is a genus of woodlouse hunter spiders (Arachnida: Araneae: Dysderidae), currently including three species: M. nocturna, M. kratochvili, and M. comottii. These are cave-dwelling species, endemic to the Dinarides. The genus distribution range is examined, focusing on published localities. In particular, the presence of Mesostalita in the Julian Prealps (NE Italy) is investigated by researching previous reports from the area. A new record, Foran di Landri cave, is reported, representing the fourth known occurrence of the genus in the area. A brief description and some photographs of the female specimen found in the cave are provided. Following this finding, the genus distribution range must be extended northwards to include the Julian Prealps, on the other side of the Isonzo-Soča river (representing a biogeographical barrier for many cave-dwellers), opposite to the Dinarides. This makes Mesostalita one of the few troglobitic north-western Dinaric genera living on both sides of the river. Further sampling in caves in the area (to find at least a male individual) and molecular analyses are necessary to clarify the proper, specific status of specimens living in the Julian Prealps and their phylogenetic relationships within the genus.
Karst formations in Albania cover an area of 6750 km², which represents 24% of the country's territory. The country has 110 karst springs with discharges exceeding 100 litters per second. Among these, Bistrica springs stands out as the largest, with an average discharge of 18.4 cubic meters per second. This study focuses on the Southern Mountain Region of Albania, known for its important karst water resources. In this region, 12 karst springs are protected due to their essential natural, scientific, educational, aesthetic and economic value. The objective of this research is to perform a geoinformatics analysis and evaluation of these protected karst resources. To achieve this, we collected extensive literature on protected springs, as well as reach data about the protected springs of the study area and analysed them using ArcGIS 10.1 software to generate geoinformation about these resources. This geoinformation includes a wide range of geographic and geologic-hydrogeological data. We aim to improve the understanding and promotion of protected karst resources in the Southern Mountain Region of Albania
Cave-PY is a QGIS plugin developed to identify and analyze cave levels from geospatially referenced cave survey data. Cave levels, cave tiers, or cave stories are subhorizontal passages in karst systems that develop at different elevations due to base level changes or litho-structural factors. This algorithm processes point cloud data by calculating horizontal distances between survey points based on user-defined slope thresholds and proximity radius parameters. The horizontal extent is grouped into elevation classes to identify potential cave levels. We use Stortuvhola cave located in Northern Norway, a multi-level system, where we demonstrate the plugin's ability to effectively reveal cave levels from both survey station data and complete cave survey datasets. The sensitivity tests we performed highlight the importance of appropriate parameter selection based on survey characteristics. While Cave-PY offers an efficient method for the initial extraction of cave levels, it is important that the results are validated through morphological criteria and cave survey information for correct interpretation. We believe this tool addresses a gap in the existing methodology for geospatial analysis of caves.
A tribute to the late Prof. Wolfgang Dreybrodt — physicist and karstologist — whose pioneering work fundamentally advanced our understanding of essential karst processes.
