This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to food safety among street food vendors in Marrakech and to assess the microbiological contamination of their food contact surfaces. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 200 street food vendors using structured face-to-face interviews to assess socio-demographic characteristics and food safety KAP levels. Concurrently, 115 swab samples were collected from food contact surfaces (hands, cutting boards, knives, and preparation tables) for bacteriological analysis, including Total Aerobic Viable Count (TAVC), Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella spp. Vendors demonstrated limited food safety knowledge (mean score: 39.2%), despite showing positive attitudes (72.1%) and moderate self-reported practices (62.7%). Knowledge gaps were particularly evident in temperature control and cross-contamination prevention. Microbiological analysis revealed substantial contamination, with mean aerobic counts of 4.03 log10 CFU/cm² and detection of E. coli (68%), S. aureus (45%), and Salmonella spp. (25%). A strong correlation was observed between knowledge and attitudes (r = 0.89, p < 0.001), but weaker associations existed between knowledge and practices (r = 0.27) and between attitudes and practices (r = 0.31). Education level, training, and work experience significantly influenced KAP scores (p < 0.05). Although street food vendors displayed generally positive attitudes, their food safety knowledge and practices were insufficient, contributing to high microbial contamination levels. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted food safety training, stricter hygiene regulations, and improved infrastructure to mitigate foodborne disease risks and safeguard consumer health within Morocco’s street food sector.
Jaboticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba) is a polyphenol-rich fruit, particularly abundant in anthocyanins concentrated within its thick peel, which exhibits potent antioxidant activity. Owing to the thermal sensitivity of these compounds, nonthermal processing techniques, such as high-pressure processing (HPP) and enzymatic maceration, were compared to enhance anthocyanin extraction while minimizing degradation. In this study, whole jaboticaba fruits were subjected to HPP at 400, 500, and 600 MPa for 3, 6, and 10 min, while enzymatic maceration was performed using 0.2% amylase, 0.2% pectinase, and a combination of 0.1% amylase + 0.1% pectinase (v/w) at 50 ± 1°C for 30 min. Treatment with 0.2% amylase significantly (p < 0.05) increased total anthocyanin content, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity while effectively reducing residual polyphenol oxidase activity. Conversely, HPP at 600 MPa for 6–10 min significantly decreased peroxidase activity, whereas the 400 MPa (3 min) treatment yielded the highest total sugar content. Among the HPP treatments, the highest total anthocyanin content was recorded at 400 MPa, suggesting that moderate pressure, regardless of holding time, enhances anthocyanin release from the fruit matrix. Overall, these findings demonstrate that both HPP and enzymatic maceration are promising nonthermal pre-treatment strategies for improving anthocyanin recovery, antioxidant capacity, and enzymatic stability in jaboticaba juice, thereby contributing to the development of high-quality, minimally -processed functional beverages.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Lactobacillus leichmannii as a probiotic bacteria, Saccharomyces boulardii as a yeast, and β-glucan as a prebiotic on the binding ability of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and its bioaccessibility in a cereal-based fermented beverage. For this purpose, nine study groups with their combinations were formed. The amount of unbound AFB1 was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) after incubation and during the stomach, small intestine, and colon stages using an in vitro digestion model. After incubation, the highest percentage of AFB1 binding (27.79%) was obtained with S. boulardii. The lowest bioaccessibility was observed with L. leichmannii + S. boulardii at the stomach stage (41%), L. leichmannii + β-glucan at the small intestine stage (52%), and L. leichmannii + S. boulardii + β-glucan at the colon stage (35%). These findings suggest that probiotics and prebiotics reduce aflatoxin bioaccessibility, thereby limiting gastrointestinal absorption.
A fat replacer mimics the properties of fat in foods, offering a healthier option that reduces calories and fat while maintaining good texture and flavor. This work aimed to produce pea protein emulsion gel (PPEG) using pea protein isolate with different oils (olive oil, sunflower oil, or canola oil) and gelation techniques (hot or cold), with beef fat (BF) as the control. The nutritional, physicochemical, and microstructural properties of the PPEG were evaluated. The type of oil and gelation technique did not affect the proximate composition, color, or water-holding capacity of PPEG (p>0.05). None of the PPEGs showed differences in oil-binding capacity compared to BF. Hot-prepared PPEG has a lower pH and smaller particle size, resulting in significantly higher hardness and gel strength (p<0.05). The use of sunflower oil enhances the springiness, chewiness, and cohesiveness of PPEG significantly (p<0.05). The cold gelation technique may preserve more polyunsaturated fatty acids than the hot gelation technique. Principal component analysis (PCA) results indicate that PPEG prepared from sunflower oil using the hot gelation technique has properties closest to those of BF, particularly in terms of high values of springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness. Its hardness and gel strength are significantly lower than those of BF; however, it possesses the strongest gel network among all PPEGs. In conclusion, the use of sunflower oil and the hot gelation technique can produce an emulsion gel with the best properties for use as a fat replacer.
Truffles are fungi, usually globular and found underground, typically located using trained dogs. The most -consumed species belong to the genera Tuber, Terfezia, and Tirmania. Southern Italy produces both black and white truffles. Truffles are characterized by a short shelf life due to the loss of quality as a consequence of microbial spoilage and enzymatic browning. This work aimed at the taxonomic identification, by using a molecular approach, of three truffle species, such as Tuber mesentericum Vittad. (TM), Tuber borchii Vittad. (TB), and Tuber aestivum var. uncinatum Chatin (TU), collected from the Calabria region and the evolution of truffle’s quality parameters for 28 days in two storage conditions (under rice and vacuum). The total phenols content (TPC) and total flavonoids content (TFC), degradation kinetics, as well as antioxidant activity were also assessed. Generally, the vacuum packaging proved to be more effective in maintaining the sensory and nutritional quality of TB and TU, whereas the results for TM were more variable, showing greater sensitivity to microbial proliferation under anaerobic conditions. Kinetics results evidenced that the degradation of both TPC and TFC does not depend on the different preservation methods but on the species of truffle object of investigation. Principal Component Analysis does not allow us to establish the advantage of the vacuum preservation method compared to that under rice. Therefore, the use of rice as a matrix to be recovered at the end of the preservation process, edible and rich in truffle aroma, can represent an interesting aspect for the consumer.
In this study, the effects of Lactobacillus sakei subsp. sakei, Staphylococcus xylosus, and Pediococcus pentosaceus starter cultures on biogenic amine formation and overall product quality in reduced-salt fermented fish sausages were evaluated. Six experimental groups were prepared: two control groups containing 2.5% and 1.5% salt, and four treatment groups inoculated at a level of 107 CFU/g with single or mixed cultures (L. sakei subsp. sakei, S. xylosus, P. pentosaceus, and a mixed culture). In all inoculated groups, the salt content was reduced to 1.5%. Samples were analyzed on days 0, 3, and 6 to determine biogenic amine levels, physicochemical properties, and microbial quality. Compared with the controls, reduced-salt sausages inoculated with starter cultures exhibited lower pH, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances values and reduced biogenic amine accumulation. Sensory analysis revealed that the addition of starter cultures, particularly P. pentosaceus and the mixed culture, significantly improved aroma attributes and increased overall product acceptability. Notably, production of histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, and spermidine was significantly suppressed in sausages inoculated with P. pentosaceus. The findings demonstrate that the use of starter cultures in reduced-salt fermented fish sausages effectively inhibits Enterobacteriaceae growth and improves sensory quality, with P. pentosaceus showing the most pronounced beneficial effects. It is recommended that future studies investigate the use of different fish species and evaluate longer fermentation and storage periods to more comprehensively elucidate the sustainable technological and safety-related effects of starter cultures in reduced-salt fermented products.
The adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) within the framework of fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) is reshaping contemporary food safety management by enabling a transition from predominantly reactive practices to proactive and predictive approaches. This study explores how AI-based technologies, including machine learning, computer vision, and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, contribute to improved food safety control, quality monitoring, and supply chain traceability. The analysis indicates that AI-driven solutions outperform traditional manual methods by delivering faster and more accurate detection of contaminants, improved identification of foodborne pathogens, and more reliable shelf-life prediction. The integration of AI with blockchain further strengthens traceability mechanisms, allowing rapid identification and containment of contamination events. Nevertheless, several limitations remain, notably the limited interpretability of complex deep-learning models, substantial implementation costs, and persistent challenges related to data quality and standardization. In addition, ethical issues, such as data protection and potential algorithmic bias, highlight the importance of transparent governance frameworks. The findings suggest that optimal outcomes are achieved when AI systems operate within a human-in-the-loop model, supported by interdisciplinary expertise and harmonized global datasets. Collectively, these advancements indicate that AI has strong potential to enhance the resilience, efficiency, and transparency of the global food supply chain, supporting progress toward a zero-contamination objective.
Biogenic amines (BAs) constitute an important chemical hazard in fish and fishery products, primarily due to their adverse effects on human health. While histamine-producing bacteria have been extensively investigated, the contribution of Enterococcus species to BA formation in fresh marine fish remains poorly characterized. The present study aimed to isolate and identify Enterococcus spp. from fresh anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and to evaluate their capacity to produce major BAs. A total of 56 fresh anchovy samples were analyzed, yielding 24 Enterococcus isolates that were characterized by phenotypic methods and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The BA production capacities of the isolates were quantified via HPLC following incubation in a standardized liquid screening medium under optimized laboratory conditions. Fourteen isolates (58.33%) exhibited aminogenic activity and were identified as Enterococcus faecalis (42.86%), E. faecium (28.57%), E. lactis (21.43%), and E. durans (7.14%). Tyramine, histamine, tryptamine, cadaverine, and putrescine were detected, with maximum concentrations reaching 307.638, 257.939, 236.928, 165.835, and 56.317 mg/L, respectively. The highest total BA levels, E. faecium BLK18, exhibited the highest levels, reaching 493.547 mg/L. These findings demonstrate that fresh anchovies may serve as a reservoir for aminogenic Enterococcus spp. and highlight their potential role in BA accumulation beyond traditionally implicated bacteria. The results support the inclusion of Enterococcus species in routine monitoring programs for fresh fish products and underline the need for broader, evidence-based strategies to manage BA-related hazards in seafood.
This study evaluated 24 strawberry genotypes, including 12 parental varieties and 12 progenies, using chemical and sensory analyses to assess fruit quality and panelist preferences. Sugar and organic acid profiles, total -soluble solids, titratable acidity, phenolic content, radical-scavenging activity, and sweetness index were determined. Statistical analyses examined correlations among quality parameters, focusing on the influence of sugars and acids on the Brix/TA ratio. Sensory evaluation confirmed panelists’ perception of sweetness and sourness differences. Progeny cultivars BL34 Sandra, BL29 Nadja, and BL42 Federica showed superior quality; two were registered as new varieties, while one is under registration.
Microwave energy is increasingly being applied in various processing technologies within the food industry. Microwaves, which are electromagnetic waves with specific frequencies ranging from 300 MHz to 3000 GHz, represent a novel and efficient processing method that has found widespread use in food processing applications. Over time, this innovative technology has been explored by researchers as an advanced method for improving food processing, and it has been successfully applied in several areas, including blanching, cooking, thawing, pasteurization, drying, frying, extraction, and sterilization. This review provides an overview of the principles and characteristics of microwave-assisted fish processing techniques, with a focus on their impact on drying, heating, and sterilization processes. Furthermore, we explore how microwave processing influences the quality attributes, microbial growth, and the nutritional and physicochemical composition of fish products. In addition, the advantages of microwave processing are discussed, along with a comparison to conventional methods. Notably, microwave processing offers significant time savings, improved yields, and energy efficiency, preserving sensory qualities and nutritional fish value. In addition, this review aims to provide evidence on these topics and highlight recent advancements in microwave processing that could inspire the food engineering and technology community.
Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks., also known as Himalayan white pine, is recognized in traditional medicine for its various uses, including diabetes mellitus (DM). Pinus species like Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine) and Pinus gerardiana (Chilgoza pine) have shown promise for antidiabetic properties. This study focuses on the use of edible cones of Pinus wallichiana (P. wallichiana) for the potential management of DM. The methanolic extract of Pinus wallichiana (Pw.Cme) was subjected to Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) analyses, and qualitative phytochemical studies. The Pw.Cme and its derived fractions were evaluated for their in vitro antioxidant, α-glucosidase, α-amylase inhibitory studies, and the identified compounds were docked against enzyme targets, followed by Molecular Dynamic Simulation (MDS) studies. Detailed in vivo antidiabetic and histopathological studies were performed following standard procedures. The GC-MS analysis of Pw.Cme lead to identification of 45 compounds, and the Pinus wallichiana ethyl acetate (Pw.EtAc) fraction exhibited the highest TPC (258.55 mg gallic acid equivalent [GAE]/g) and TFC (63.05 mg quercetin equivalent [QE]/g). In 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assays, the respective highest anti-radical activity was observed for Pw.EtAc, as IC50=13.0 µg/mL and 5.3 µg/mL. In enzymes inhibition studies, considerable α-amylase inhibition was observed for Pw.EtAc with IC50=1.98 µg/mL, and IC50=7.2 µg/mL for α-glucosidase. In vivo studies indicated that the administration of Pw.EtAc resulted in a marked decrease in fasting blood glucose levels, hyperlipidemia, and weight loss in diabetic albino mice. Histopathology of vital organs of albino mice, administered with various doses of Pw.EtAc showed a healing effect against alloxan-induced lesions in the heart, pancreas, liver, and kidneys. In conclusion, we can claim that the extract of P. wallichiana cones is rich in many phytocomponents and have potential antidiabetic properties.
Coconut was dried using infrared drying under different drying process conditions in a central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM). Moisture content (%), water activity (aw), pH, free acidity (%), total phenolic content (TPC) (mg GAE/g), color, and FTIR spectrum of the dried samples were analyzed, and the total oil content and fatty acid composition of fresh coconut were determined. Mathematical models were built and an optimization was performed for determining the optimum drying condition. The lowest moisture content (1.80%) and water activity (0.283) values were obtained at 250 W lamp power, 240 min drying time, 15 cm lamp distance, and 10 mm sample thickness. The highest TPC was found to be 209.34 mg GAE/g. ΔE* values of dried samples ranged between 0.28 and 19.12. L* values of the dried samples decreased at higher lamp power and longer drying times, while a* and b* values increased. In fresh coconut oil, medium-chain fatty acids were predominant, specifically lauric acid (C12:0) being the dominant fatty acid at 49.78% of the total fatty acids. An overall desirability of 0.766 was obtained from optimization.
Brown rice is valued for its nutritional benefits but often perceived as less palatable due to its firm texture and longer cooking time. Cooking conditions can modify starch structure and influence glycemic response by altering starch digestibility (SD). This study examined how different rice-to-water ratios and cooking methods affect the chemical composition, degree of gelatinization (DG), SD, resistant starch (RS), and estimated glycemic index (eGI) of low-amylose brown rice. A 1:2 rice-to-water ratio cooked in an electric cooker significantly reduced DG, SD, and eGI compared with higher water ratios, which yielded softer, fully cooked grains. This ratio received slightly lower sensory scores than the 1:3 sample but was still rated higher than the 1:4 ratio. Among the cooking techniques evaluated, steaming consistently produced brown rice with lower DG, SD, and eGI without adversely affecting macronutrient composition. Microstructural observations and texture profiling supported these findings, showing more compact granule structures and firmer textures in steamed and microwave-cooked samples. Optimizing the water level (1:3 rice-to-water ratio) and using steaming can reduce the glycemic potential of low-amylose brown rice while preserving desirable texture, providing practical guidance for health-focused rice products. Future studies should validate these findings through in vivo trials, as current eGI values are based on in vitro measurements, to ensure accurate dietary recommendations.
This study aimed to assess the rheological, physical, and sensory properties of instant idli premixes formulated with finger millet (30–70%), as a partial or full substitute for rice. The attractiveness and convenience of pre--prepared foods led the food industry to reformulate traditional, time-consuming foods into modern, ready-to-cook options. Rheological assessments revealed that incorporating finger millet significantly improved water absorption (up to 65.5%) and accelerated starch gelatinization, with the onset temperature recorded at 71.0°C for the 60% millet blend. Optimal dough stability (17.6–18.3 min) and extensibility (1638 mm) were observed at 50% millet inclusion, contributing to a soft, well-aerated texture. In contrast, higher substitution levels (70%) impaired structural integrity and increased dough resistance, indicating reduced viscoelastic performance. Physical analysis demonstrated consistent batter viscosity (~2500 cP) across formulations, while color metrics (ΔE*: 14.9–17.5) showed only minor shifts. Organoleptic properties confirmed high consumer acceptability of idlis containing 50–60% finger millet, as assessed in terms of softness, flavor, and appearance. These results highlight the potential of finger millet as a valuable, gluten-free ingredient for improving the nutritional profile of idlis without sacrificing their texture or flavor.
This study aimed to systematically compare the structural characteristics, in vitro hypoglycemic activity, and regulatory effects on gut microbiota of Alpinia oxyphylla polysaccharides (AOFP) obtained by three extraction techniques, high-pressure and high-temperature (HH), acid-assisted high-pressure and high-temperature (AHP), and Aspergillus niger fermentation (ANF), to elucidate their structure–activity relationship and gut microbiota regulation mechanisms. By comparing the three types of AOFP (AOFP-HH, AOFP-AHP, AOFP-ANF), we revealed intrinsic associations among structure, activity, and microbiota regulation. The HH method promoted the ordered arrangement of β-1,3-glucan chains, forming a semicrystalline state and folded lamellar structures, thereby exhibiting the strongest hypoglycemic activity (α-amylase inhibition rate: 97.08 %; α-glucosidase inhibition rate: 59.43 %). The key mechanism lies in the synergy between the integrity of β-1,3-glycosidic bonds and the galacturonic acid content (11.74 %); together, they enhance activity through spatial hindrance effects and hydrogen bond networks. On the other hand, the AHP method, due to acid-induced cleavage of glycosidic bonds, generated amorphous low-molecular-weight structures (1.03 kDa), leading to a marked reduction in activity. The ANF method produced medium-molecular-weight fragments (1.14 kDa) via enzymatic hydrolysis. In terms of gut microbiota regulation, all AOFPs significantly promoted early butyrate production; notably, the HH group maintained a butyrate concentration of 0.076 mmol/L at 48 h. Each polysaccharide sample specifically increased the Firmicutes and stimulated the proliferation of Ligilactobacillus, thereby improving intestinal barrier function. Interestingly, the ANF group uniquely upregulated the abundance of Fusobacteriota, suggesting potential immunomodulatory capacity. Further analysis indicated that different processing techniques modulate selective microbial metabolic pathways through conformational differences. The AOFP-HH prepared by the HH method combines high hypoglycemic activity with structural stability, making it an ideal functional food additive. Meanwhile, the distinctive microbiota interaction mechanism exhibited by the ANF method offers novel insights for the development of personalized probiotics. In conclusion, our findings lay a solid theoretical foundation for the precise design of A. oxyphylla polysaccharides and their application in the prevention and treatment of -metabolic diseases.
This study investigated the nutritional composition of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), referred to as Turkish salmon, cultured in marine and dam lake environments across winter and summer seasons. The nutritional composition of rainbow trout showed notable seasonal and environmental variation, with protein remaining relatively stable (18.50–19.36%), while lipid content ranged from 4.10% (winter, dam lake) to 11.73% (summer, dam lake) and from 10.14% to 8.70% in marine samples, accompanied by an inverse relationship with moisture (68.19–74.62%), and ash content varied slightly between 1.35% and 1.71%. Seasonal and habitat-related variations were observed in proximate composition, with protein content peaking in summer-harvested fish and lipid levels notably lower in dam lake winter samples, showing an inverse relationship with moisture. Fatty acid analysis identified palmitic acid as the dominant saturated fatty acid and oleic acid as the main monounsaturated fatty acid. Among amino acids, L-glycine and other essential amino acids were abundant, while potassium and phosphorus predominated in the mineral profiles, and iron was consistently low. Vitamin E and niacinamide were the most prevalent fat- and water-soluble vitamins, respectively. These results demonstrate that Turkish salmon possess high nutritional value, emphasizing the influence of seasonal and environmental factors, and provide critical insights for optimizing aquaculture practices, harvest timing, and dietary recommendations.
Beer spoilage is mainly caused by a limited group of bacteria, including Levilactobacillus brevis, Fructilactobacillus lindneri, and Pediococcus damnosus. Detection is essential for beer quality control. Among the microbiological tools used by breweries, enrichment in Nutrient Media for Beer-Spoiling Bacteria (NBB-C®) is based on European Brewery Convention analytical procedures, EBC ANALYTICA analytical methods; however, in our accredited method (MI LMB 01-2021), the standard 14-day incubation is modified to 7 days to provide faster results suitable for routine brewery monitoring. This study aimed to validate the modified EBC ANALYTICA 4.3.1.4 Enrichment, 2011 method using NBB-C® media by determining its probability of detection (POD) and limit of detection using pasteurized lager beer as a test matrix. For the first time, POD curves with 95% confidence intervals were estimated for L. brevis, F. lindneri, and P. damnosus. The results provided an objective and quantitative performance evaluation of the modified NBB-C®-enrichment procedure, supporting its suitability for International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC) 17025-compliant testing in brewing laboratories.
This study explored the impact of fortifying yogurt with varying concentrations (10% and 20%) of barley, oats, and quinoa pastes. This study aimed to improve yogurt’s nutritional, physicochemical, sensory, and antioxidant attributes, evaluating all fortified samples over a 28-day refrigerated storage period. The prepared yogurt, fortified with roasted barley paste (RBP), roasted oats paste (ROP), and roasted quinoa paste (RQP), was comprehensively assessed for its chemical, nutritional, and phytochemical content as well as its microbiological stability and sensory attributes. Results indicated that fortification with RBP, ROP, and RQP significantly improved the nutritional profile of yogurt, increasing levels of total solids, proteins, ash, and fiber. Additionally, the addition of these pastes resulted in a significant increase in phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity (p < 0.05). Phenolic compounds and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH, %) were maximum in yogurt with 20% RBP or RQP throughout all storage periods, compared to control yogurt (p < 0.05). The pastes did not negatively affect the viability or stability of yogurt’s starter cultures, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-05, which maintained a robust cell count of 6.80 to 8.53 log CFU/mL throughout the storage period (p > 0.05). This suggests that the fortified yogurt maintains its beneficial probiotic properties and leads to substantial physicochemical improvement. The fortified yogurt showed a wider range of amino acids, a more desirable texture, and better water-holding capacity, leading to a significant reduction in syneresis (whey separation), compared to control yogurt. This study demonstrates that fortifying yogurt with barley, oats, and quinoa pastes successfully creates a novel, value-added fermented milk product with potential functional properties. Incorporating these pastes enhances yogurt’s nutritional and func-tional properties without compromising the viability of beneficial starter cultures, highlighting its strong potential in the health-promoting food market.
This work aimed to optimize the micellar extraction of bioactive compounds from turmeric, using sodium oleate as surfactant. Response surface methodology was employed, considering the independent variables: mass ratio of turmeric/micellar solution (MS) of sodium oleate (MSSO), surfactant concentration and extraction time (tE). The turmeric/MSSO ratio and surfactant mainly affected the process. The optimal conditions were as follows: turmeric/MSSO = 0.01, surfactant = 1.525% and tE = 6.6 min; and the dependent variables: TPC = 181.6 ± 3.0 mg gallic acid equivalent/g turmeric dry basis (db); DPPH• = 50.6 ± 1.1 mg Trolox equivalent (TE)/g turmeric db; ABTS•+ = 142.7 ± 7.9 mg TE/g turmeric db; curcumin = 11.6 mg/g turmeric db. Micellar extraction is a sustainable, economical, and simple process compared to the conventional ethanol method. .
This study comprehensively investigated G. mangostana seeds, which were collected, cleaned, air-dried, and finely crunched prior to analysis. The prepared seed powder underwent Soxhlet extraction, yielding 18.6% oil, while the remaining solid fraction was retained as residual oil cake for nutritional profiling. The extracted oil was subsequently analyzed for its chemical composition using gas chromatography–flame ionization detection (GC–FID), which revealed a lipid profile dominated by unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid (41.2%), linoleic acid (22.7%), and palmitic acid (15.6%). These results demonstrate a direct link between sample preparation, extraction efficiency, and the compositional characteristics of the obtained oil. Further characterization using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) identified a diverse range of bioactive molecules, including terpenes, sterols, and phenolic derivatives, known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Evaluation of the residual oil cake showed that it is nutritionally rich, containing crude protein (21.4%), dietary fiber (28.6%), and carbohydrates (38.2%), along with essential minerals, such as potassium (4,215 mg/ kg), calcium (865 mg/kg), magnesium (432 mg/kg), and iron (74 mg/kg). These attributes highlight the suitability of oil cake as a sustainable ingredient for functional food or feed applications. Antimicrobial activity assays demonstrated selective inhibition of bacterial strains—Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa—and fungal pathogens, including Candida albicans and Aspergillus flavus. These effects probably arise from synergistic interactions between fatty acid composition and phytochemical constituents. Overall, this study introduces a dual-valorization strategy for G. mangostana seeds, showing that both extracted oil and its residual oil cake possess complementary nutritional and functional properties. These findings position mangosteen seed by-products as promising candidates for sustainable applications in food preservation, nutra-ceuticals, and pharmaceutical formulations.
