The archaeological site known as Toca do Enoque is a rock shelter located in the Serra das Confusoes National Park, Piaui State, Brazil, whose sandstone walls contain various red rock paintings (anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures and geometric motifs). Well-preserved combustion structures, charcoal, lithic materials, necklaces with teeth, animal bones, gastropod shells, ochres, and three burials containing human skeletons were identified during the excavation conducted in 2008-2009. Samples of red and yellow ochres were collected from the prehistoric mortuary structures and analyzed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). The iron content (expressed as Fe2O3) in the red ochres ranges from similar to 62 to similar to 68 mass%, while for the yellow ochres, the corresponding content is similar to 70 mass%, as determined by EDXRF.
This paper presents an integrated archaeometric study of monochrome globular pots with an external clay coating from the El Ocote archaeological site (Aguascalientes, Mexico). UsingX-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, a geochemical composition consistent with raw materials of intermediate to felsic origin was determined, with surface variations suggesting the possible intentional application of coatings or pigments. The thermomagnetic curves reveal a mineralogy dominated by titanomagnetite poor in titanium or magnetite. Determinations of the absolute intensity of the geomagnetic field, obtained using the Thellier and Thellier method modified by Coe, yielded an average value of 33.2 +/- 0.85 & micro;T. Comparison with the SHAWQ.2kgeomagnetic model and the regional secular variation curve constrains the period of use of these vessels to c. AD 655-810. These results are consistent, within the margin of uncertainty, with previous archaeomagnetic studies at the site. This work provides new evidence regarding the technological and chronological variability of pottery at El Ocote, highlighting the potential of integrated archaeometric approaches in the study of archaeological materials.
This study investigates the chemical and mineralogical composition of red pigments in rock paintings from the Ema Complex, in the municipality of Inhuma, Piau & iacute;, Brazil. Non-destructive techniques were employed, including portable X-ray fluorescence (P-EDXRF) and Raman spectroscopy, combined with microscopic examination and digital image processing. The results indicate hematite (alpha-Fe2O3) as the main chromophore, with tonal variations related to the thickness of the paint layer, associated minerals, and post-depositional processes. This research provides initial contributions to the material understanding of the paintings, with implications for their conservation.
This paper presents the typology and archaeometric characterization of a sample of necklace beads and pendants made of amber, sillimanite, glass, quartz, and shell documented in different tombs of the Iberian necropolis ofAlarcos III. XRD, SEM-EDX, and FTIR were applied to eleven items dated between the 4th and 1st centuries BCE to determine their mineralogical nature and assess their provenance. The assemblage is notable for the identification of Baltic amber and for the interpretation of orange beads as quartz rather than carnelian.
The Shakimu pottery tradition constitutes a key cultural complex in the archaeological sequence of the Central Ucayali (Peruvian Amazon), representing a period of artistic and technical peak during the Late Formative or Jungle Development period (c. 650-200 BCE). This study analyzes the stylistic evolution of this tradition, characterized by the synthesis of the local Tutish cainyo pottery tradition and a significant iconographic influence from the Chav & iacute;n horizon of the central Andes. Through a review of the early and late phases, diagnostic attributes such as highly polished surfaces, complex incised decoration, and intrusive forms (flat-bottomed bowls) are described. The results suggest that the transition to the Late Shakimu not only demonstrates technical excellence unprecedented in the region. Also, the marked contrast between utilitarian and decorated pottery-the latter subject to rigorous compositional rules-evidences an increase in social stratification and organizational complexity among the populations of the Ucayali region prior to the migrations ofgroups of the Barrancoid tradition.
This paper presents a progress report on the archaeological excavation at the Pailacucha necropolis, located in the community of Rumicruz (Chimborazo, Ecuador), which dates to the Puruha culture during the Integration Period (500-1470 CE). The research validated the use of electrical resistivity tomography as an effective non-invasive technique for locating underground burial structures, confirming anomalies previously detected at depths ranging from 60 cm to 1 m. Two burials in a seatedposition were excavated. The findings revealpreviously unknown ritualpractices, such as the intentional fragmentation ofpottery and animal remains, possibly linked to funeral feasts held before the graves were sealed. Unlike classical records, the absence of conventionalgravegoods alongside the bodies was documented, along with the presence of lateral stone supports to maintain the deceaseds' seated posture. These preliminary results provide significant data on the complexity ofPuruha burial rituals, underscoring the importance of integrating geophysical surveying and stratigraphic excavation for the study of the regions' archaeological heritage.
Artificial mounds in pre-Columbian America provide evidence of stratified societies as chiefdoms and states. These structures served multiple purposes, including as burialgrounds. For the first time, artificial mounds have been identified by the use ofgeotechnologies at the Lontra stilt villages in eastern Amazon, Brazil.
Song Dynasty grottoes, represented by the Dazu Rock Carvings, exhibitpronounced artistic standardization and stylistic convergence. However, conventional similarity assessments of cultural relics remain heavily reliant on qualitative expert experience, which often results in inconsistent evaluations and lacks the quantitative rigor necessary for refined digital conservation and restoration. To address this, we propose a quantitative evaluation model based on trimodal feature fusion. The framework first employs the Perceptual Hash (pHash) algorithm for global structural screening of orthophotos, followed by the integration of the SIFT operator to extract high-dimensional texture features and perform local keypoint matching. Finally, an improved MSRoVGG deep learning architecture is incorporated to achieve deep feature verification at the semantic level. Using the Seven Buddhas of the Present Kalpa in the Dazu Rock Carvings as a case study, the results demonstrate a 100% recognition rate for identical statue types within the same niche. Furthermore, the model successfully discriminates between different iconographic types, effectively capturing semantic variations in artistic styles and vestimentary features between Buddhist and secular figures. These findings confirm the models' robust capability in typological classification and stylistic differentiation.
The Pedra do Lagarto archaeological site is located in the Buriti dos Cavalos valley, a rural area in the municipality ofPiripiri, in the north of the state ofPiau & iacute;, Brazil. It consists of an isolated block of ruiniform sandstone containing rock paintings and engravings arranged on a semi-sheltered vertical face and in a small shelter on the lefthand side. A total of 162 rock paintings were identified, made in different shades of red, with some figures in two colors, red and yellow: handprints, geometric figures similar to hourglasses, figures composed ofzigzag lines, sequences ofsticks, sets of digits or dots, tridigits or bird footprints, concentric circles, a large lizard, and other abstract geometric motifs. Among the most recurring paintings, 38 handprints, 5 figures composed ofzigzag lines, 5 figures similar to hourglasses, 3 figures similar to ladders, 9 sequences of digits or dots, 12 sets of sticks, 5 tridigits or bird footprints, and 5 sets of Vshaped figures were found. In addition, 25 rock engravings produced by pecking and scraping were identified, many of which are painted. Most of the engraved representations are cupule-shaped with varying sizes and depths, and there are also concentric circles filled with cupules and an abstract motif composed of cupules and wavy, tangled lines. Among the most recurring engravings, 22 isolated cupules were counted.
This paper presents the results of the technomorphological analysis of the lithic assemblage from the materials from stratigraphic contexts associated with a primary burial attributed to the Late Las Vegas culture. Based on the methodological guidelines proposed by Aschero (1975, 1983) and subsequent developments in technomorphological analysis, morphological, technological, and contextual variables were examined with the aim of reconstructing the sequences of production, use, reactivation, and disposal of the lithic artifacts. The sample analyzed comprises 236 artifacts artifacts. The most commonly used raw materials are mainly chert, basalt, and quartzite, selected for their carving instruments manufactured by abrasion and use. The results reveal technological strategies oriented toward the intensive use of local lithic resources, characterized by a marked economy of raw materials and practices of reuse and artifact multifunctionality. Overall, the analysis provides new data for understanding the technological and functional dynamics of the human groups that occupied the Ecuadorian coast during the Middle Holocene. It contributes to the regional discussion on technological practices associated with domestic and ritual contexts in the Late Las Vegas tradition.
This article proposes a model for interpretingAndean petroglyphs from a structural-linguistic and cognitive perspective, focusing on the rock art systems of the Ca & ntilde;ari culture and their subsequent reconfiguration during the Inca expansion. Special reference is made to the petroglyphs ofNudillo, in the current province ofEl Oro, Ecuador. Based on the principles of linguistic structuralism and cognitive archaeology, it is argued thatpetroglyphs should not be approached as isolated images or as mere independent symbolic representations, but rather as semasiographic language systems with their own syntax. In this sense, a distinction is recommended between iconic and abstract lexical units, whose structured associations allow the construction of configurations of meaning linked to ritual, territorial, and cosmological practices. The analysis suggests that the Ca & ntilde;ari petroglyphs constitute a structured rock art language whose syntactic logic was partially reinterpreted but not nullified by the Inca presence, giving rise to processes of continuity, superimposition, and symbolic reorganization. This approach contributes to expanding the interpretive possibilities ofAndean rock art by integrating language, cognition, and material culture within a coherent theoretical framework.
Brazilian archaeology was consolidated throughout the 20th century through the incorporation of theoretical and methodological frameworks derived mainly from foreign academic traditions, particularly American and French archaeology. In this process, methods of classification, seriation, and the definition of cultural chronologies became central, highlighting the quantitative method proposed by James Ford, widely used in the context of the National Archaeological Research Program. However, the systematic application of these quantitative models has generated important epistemological debates, especially regarding their ability to represent the sociocultural complexity of thegroups that produced the archaeological material culture. Based on a theoretical and methodological review, this study seeks to problematize the scope and limitations of traditional classifications and discuss the relevance of integrative approaches that allow the reconstruction of long-term processes, continuities, and cultural transformations. This contributes to a denser and more socially contextualized interpretation of the archaeological record.
The Tamaulipas Mountains encompass a wide range of ecosystems whose habitats contain abundant evidence of human interaction in northern Mexico, exemplified by the Pueblito cultural complex, which is generally characterized as a mountain culture. Our speleoarchaeological explorations in the area-specifically in the Guadalupe and El Refugio caves-have led us to examine the issue ofpottery in this study. The materials recovered are very similar to those described for the Laguna, Eslabones, and La Salta phases (600 BC-AD 1200). Likewise, recent explorations in Cueva Escondida (Sierra Madre Oriental) have yielded comparable pottery dated between 1400 and 400 BC. The data presented here contribute to our understanding of the population that produced this pottery and their cultural interactions.
The state of Pernambuco, Brazil, is considered one of the regions with the highest number of buildings adorned with tile facades. These panels are vulnerable to microbial biodeterioration. The objective of this research was to perform a surface bioprospecting of fungi and bacteria present on the tile panels of the Pernambuco Academy of Letters (APL). Six culture media were used to isolate the microorganisms-three for fungi (BDA, MEA, and PGRBA) and three for bacteria (MH, R2, and TSA). The microbial population was identified using classical taxonomy. In addition, tile fragments were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), fluorescence microscopy, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). The culture media with the best results were MEA, PGRBA, TSA, and R2, totaling 362 isolated strains. Microscopic images revealed microbial biofilms between the glaze and the ceramic body.
Greenstone artifacts, or muiraquit & atilde;s, were objects of luxury and prestige appreciated by Amerindians throughout all pre-Columbian America. Generally these artifacts are shaped like a toad or frog. This paper presents a new discussion over these greenstones associated with the world of the dead in Amazon and Mesoamerica, highlighting spheres of interaction between both cultural areas.
A multi-analytical study was conducted on archaeological pottery samples from El Carmen de Viboral, Antioquia, Colombia (5th century BCE-3rd century CE), belonging to the Ferreria style, which is associated with the regions' pre-Hispanic agricultural societies. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA-DTG), Vickers microhardness measurements, and Mo ssbauerspectroscopy were employed to determine the chemical composition, morphological, and mineralogical characteristics of the pottery sherds. The results indicate that the pottery was primarily made from non-calcareous clays. The presence of mineral phases, such as silicates, is characteristic of a low-temperature firing process. Additionally, the identified silicate phases contain iron in both the divalent (+2) and trivalent (+3) oxidation states, suggesting variable redox conditions during the manufacturing process.
A new, more accurate statistical technique is presented that allows for a more reliable estimation of the available resources level in ancient societies based on their mortuary record. This is a new methodological advance in the archaeology of social phenomena.
This paper presents a critical review of the state of the art in digital modeling of cultural heritage, highlighting its relevance for the conservation, management, and dissemination ofcultural assets. It analyzes key geomatic methodologies such asphotogrammetry, terrestrial laser scanning, geographic information systems (GIS), HBIM (Historic Building Information Modeling), and digital twins, emphasizing their ability to generate accurate and semantically enriched three-dimensional representations. Based on this framework, the methodological application to the Moraspamba-Tres Cruces section of the "QhapaqNan" (Andean road system) is examined, addressing its specific documentation and conservation challenges. Future lines of research are also proposed, focusing on the integration of hybrid methodologies, participatory digital platforms, HBIM models applied to restoration, and the use of artificial intelligence to anticipate heritage risks. The proposal seeks to move from a descriptive approach to a practical and interdisciplinary perspective that provides innovative solutions for the sustainable management of cultural heritage.
This study comparatively analyzed the conceptions of health and corporeality represented in the rock art from El Algodonal (Viza, Peru) and those present in contemporary medical practice in order to establish continuities and transformations between ancestral symbols and modern diagnoses. The findings reveal a historical and cultural continuity articulated in three dimensions: rock art representations, intercultural healing traditions, and current biomedical practices. Although each one responds to different frameworks-symbolic-spiritual, community-based, and technical-scientific-all conceive of health as a balance between body, environment, and community. It was found that ancestral practices have not disappeared but rather coexist with biomedicine in a relationship of complementarity and tension marked by cultural differences, access, and legitimacy. In this scenario, the medical technician acts as an intercultural mediator, capable ofarticulating scientific evidence with traditional knowledge to promote more inclusive health care that is accepted by the community. The central contribution lies in integrating, from an interdisciplinary perspective, ancestral rock art expressions and modern biomedical practices, opening up a horizon of research towards intercultural care sustainable models.
The Butter and Cheese Factory of the Piau & iacute; National Farms, located in the center of the city of Campinas do Piau & iacute;, is the oldest dairy factory in the Northeast region and the second oldest in Brazil. It is a heritage site of the countrys' industrialization process, having been inaugurated on April 9, 1897. The main objective of this study was to perform an archaeometric analysis of earthenware recently recovered from excavations around the building, focusing on determining the chemical composition of the painting and decorative support. Four samples were examined by optical microscopy and analyzed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). Three chemical compositions were found for the blue color: i) one based on cobalt and magnesium; ii) one based on cobalt, high levels of sulfur, phosphorus, lead, titanium, and arsenic, in addition to chlorine in smaller proportions; and iii) one based on cobalt, with high levels of sulfur, phosphorus, zinc, and lead, as well as chlorine, iron, arsenic, and chromium in smaller proportions.Two compositions were found for the green color: i) one based on chromium, in addition to high levels of sulfur and chlorine in smaller proportions; and ii) one based on chromium, cobalt, and zinc, high levels ofsulfur, phosphorus, and lead, in addition to iron, chlorine, arsenic, tin, and titanium. For the orange color, a composition based on cadmium, sulfur, and selenium was identified, in addition to high levels of phosphorus and also lead, chlorine, chromium, titanium, and arsenic in smaller proportions. For the yellow color, a composition based on sulfur, lead, arsenic, cobalt, and chromium was identified. For the pink color, a composition based on manganese was found, in addition to high levels of sulfur and, to a lesser extent, chlorine. Manganese and iron were found to be the main components of the black color, while the chemical composition of the gilding was considered inconclusive. The chemical composition data of the decorative supports of the four analyzed earthenware fragments revealed clearly differentiated compositions, indicating different raw materials: i) calcium was attributed as the main component of the white color in two samples (presumably in the form of calcium carbonate), while ii) calcium and sulfur were attributed as the main components of the white color in the other two samples (presumably in the form of calcium sulfate). In addition, lead and arsenic were identified as opacifying agents in one of the pieces. Examination of the earthenware under a microscope revealed defects in the enamel of the samples, such as bubbles and pores, flaking, abrasion wear, and cracks or fissures.
