In an effort to reduce waste and manufacturing costs in automotive assembly tooling, this study evaluates the potential of replacing the traditional machining of technical plastic connector (CH) supports with Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) using Polylactic Acid (PLA). Comprehensive experimental evaluations were conducted using different printing parameters to cover mechanical properties (tensile, flexural and compressive strength), environmental durability (thermal ageing, moderate heat exposure and chemical resistance) and functional performance (torque, drop and cyclic load). The results confirm that FDM-manufactured PLA components meet the operational requirements for low-volume automotive tooling. Specifically, a cubic infill density of 20% was found to provide the optimal balance of structural integrity, resource efficiency, and mechanical durability, offering a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to conventionally machined plastics.
The mechanical performance of short carbon fiber (CF)-reinforced styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites is strongly governed by stress transfer across the fiber–matrix interphase. In this study, a multiscale finite element framework was developed to investigate the interfacial behavior of surface-modified short CF/SBR composites containing randomly distributed fibers. The carbon fibers were modified through oxidation, TESPT grafting, and rubber sizing treatment to enhance interfacial adhesion with the rubber matrix. Two interfacial modeling approaches, namely the continuum interphase model and cohesive zone modeling (CZM), were employed to describe the mechanical response of the fiber–matrix interface. The effects of interphase stiffness, representative volume element (RVE) size, and interfacial damage evolution on stress transfer, strain localization, and the effective mechanical response were systematically investigated. Numerical predictions were assessed through comparison with experimental mechanical properties and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations. The results demonstrated that the interfacial characteristics significantly influence local stress–strain fields, damage evolution, and the predicted effective stiffness of the composite. The developed multiscale framework provides valuable insights into the role of the fiber–matrix interphase in governing the mechanical behavior of short fiber-reinforced elastomer composites and offers an effective methodology for the design and optimization of rubber-based structural materials.
Two inflatable-types of dielectric sensor (one sided-inflatable (OIDS) and two sided-inflatable (TIDS)) were fabricated using acrylic rubber coated with a compliant electrode. The effect of air-pressure (P) on capacitance (C), coated area of compliant electrode, vertical deformation (R inf ) and the volume change were studied. An increase in P expanded the volume, area of coated electrode and R inf respectively. In terms of R inf , OIDS and TIDS were stretched above 500 and 800% while swollen to values higher than 23,000 and 77,000% respectively, in terms of volume expansion. These expansions caused changes in the output C for sensors, due to changes in polarization. The measured normalized sensitivity coefficients (nGF), a fractional change in pressure (ΔP/P o ) versus area strain (ΔA/A o ) was ∼20.73 and ∼13.6 for OIDS and TIDS respectively. TIDS reached 1.1 kPa -1 at 0.4-0.68 kPa while OIDS recorded 0.12 kPa -1 at 0.4-1.1kPa pressure, in terms of sensitivity (S) based on flexible capacitive sensors ((ΔC/C o )/(ΔP)). The OID harvested an electrical energy of ∼208μJ/s at area expansion ∼186% and could theoretically be used to harvest ∼18J in a day. Therefore, the sensors show promising multifunctional characteristics suitable for applications including; detection of pressures from natural disasters windstorm/typhoon and for harvesting energy.
High filler content hybrid polymer composites create complicated drilling behavior, which is attributed to stiffness dissimilarity, fracturing of brittle particles, and spatially non-uniform stress transfer. This research article presents a report on the performance of drilling and the formulation of predictive equations of an epoxy matrix that is reinforced with 15 wt.% eggshell-derived CaCO 3 and 35 wt.% iron dust (total filler: 50 wt%; matrix phase: 50 wt% epoxy resin-hardener system, summing to 100 wt% in total). The study of drilling trials was modeled based on the Taguchi L25 orthogonal array that allowed independent variation of spindle speed, feed rate, and measurement of the outcomes of drilling, delamination factor, circularity error, and cylindricity deviation. The results of multivariate statistical analysis showed that feed rate was the most influential variable, as it explained more than 60% of the variance in delamination and greater than 55% of the variance in geometric deviation. SEM of machined surfaces indicated a homogeneous distribution of fillers and an absence of interfacial voids, which supports damage mechanisms based on the cracking of the matrix, particle pull-out, and brittle CaCO 3 particle fracture. A deep neural network (DNN) was later developed to reflect the nonlinear process-response associations, with an excellent predictive accuracy (R 2 ) over standard regression and shallow artificial neural network designs. Confirmation experiments at the optimal condition of 1800 rpm spindle speed and 0.05 mm/rev feed rate yielded prediction deviations within ±3% for all responses. The experimental-computational method that has been developed herein is a viable approach to quality-based optimization of the drilling of sustainable hybrid composites containing high amounts of filler.
This study investigates the structural, morphological, and dielectric performance of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) nanocomposites reinforced with HfO 2 , TiO 2 , and Ta 2 O 5 nanoparticles, with special emphasis on their behavior under high-voltage microsecond pulsed gas discharge. SEM and TEM analyses confirm uniform nanoparticle dispersion and surface morphology. FTIR spectroscopy reveals distinct metal-oxygen vibrational bands, assigned as Ti–O (∼533 cm -1 ), Hf–O (∼496 cm -1 ), and Ta–O (∼644 cm -1 ). FTIR results indicate increased crystallinity and the emergence of –OH-related vibrations (3600–4000 cm -1 ) induced by discharge. Breakdown measurements show that HDPE/HfO 2 exhibits the highest post-discharge breakdown strength (0.132×10 9 V/m), outperforming neat HDPE. Dielectric measurements demonstrate enhanced permittivity and reduced loss tangent at high frequencies for all nanocomposites, with HDPE/TiO 2 showing the lowest tan δ after discharge. Overall, metal-oxide-reinforced HDPE nanocomposites show improved electrical stability and structural resilience, offering strong potential for high-voltage insulation applications.
Natural fibre reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) have emerged as sustainable, recyclable, and lighter alternatives to conventional mineral-reinforced materials. This development is largely driven by global sustainability requirements. Despite this potential, the widespread industrial adoption of natural fibres is limited. By their inherent hydrophilicity, which causes extremely weak interfacial adhesion and poor micromechanical stress transfer when paired with non-polar, hydrophobic polymer matrices. This review examines engineering strategies overcome these thermodynamic and mechanical barriers. Chemical, physical, and biological surface modification protocols are discussed in detail These approaches mitigate fibre hydrophilicity, remove non-cellulosic impurities, and facilitate strong interfacial bonding. Furthermore, research on the engineering of the nanometric fibre/matrix boundary through hierarchical architectures, such as cellulose nanocrystals and Layer-by-Layer assembly, is reviewed, highlighting how a functionally graded transition zone drastically enhances mechanical interlocking and interfacial shear strength. The use of pyrolysed biochar is explored as a scalable carbon-negative structural reinforcement Material. Biochar can replace highly emissive inorganic fillers while enhancing micromechanical interlocking via its macroporous cellular architecture. The performance gains from interphase engineering and biochar integration are validated through multi-scale characterization techniques and coupled with advanced computational frameworks, including Molecular Dynamics (MD) and the Phase Field Method, to accurately predict non-linear fracture mechanics. Together hierarchical interphase engineering, scalable biochar integration, and high-fidelity predictive modelling provides a foundation for the immediate deployment of highly durable and sustainable advanced composite materials.
The increasing discharge of dye-contaminated wastewater from textile and chemical industries poses serious environmental concerns due to the toxicity, persistence, and poor biodegradability of synthetic dyes such as methylene blue (MB). Conventional dye removal techniques often suffer from limited efficiency, high operational costs, and environmental drawbacks. In this study, a novel bio-based adsorbent, maleated carboxymethyl starch (M.CMS), was developed through surface functionalization of carboxymethyl starch via esterification with maleic anhydride, introducing maleate and additional carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups onto the starch backbone. This specific surface modification increases the density of negatively charged adsorption sites and enhances the interaction between the adsorbent surface and cationic dye molecules. The synthesized material was characterized using FT-IR spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confirming successful maleate grafting, reduced crystallinity, and increased surface roughness. Batch adsorption experiments were performed to evaluate MB removal under varying conditions of pH, temperature, dye concentration, contact time, and adsorbent dosage. The modified M.CMS exhibited a high removal efficiency of 98.2% within 20 min for a 20 ppm MB solution at neutral pH, significantly outperforming unmodified Carboxy Methyl Starch (CMS). Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium data followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir isotherm, indicating monolayer chemisorption. Thermodynamic analysis revealed that the adsorption process is spontaneous and endothermic, with improved performance at elevated temperatures. The enhanced adsorption mechanism is primarily attributed to electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding between the maleate/carboxyl functional groups of M.CMS and MB molecules. These results demonstrate that the surface-modified starch biopolymer is a cost-effective, biodegradable, and highly efficient green adsorbent with strong potential for scalable wastewater treatment applications, particularly for the removal of cationic dyes.
Present study investigates the possibilities of the effect of fillers (coconut and eggshell) on the fatigue, creep and tribological (wear and friction) performance of fibers (jute and flax) reinforced epoxy composites. The fatigue test results revealed that the Flax/Epoxy/Coconut Shell Powder composite exhibited the highest fatigue life and achieved maximum fatigue cycles at different ranges of the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), respectively, while the creep analysis demonstrated superior dimensional stability for the same composite. Frictional analysis revealed that all composite specimens exhibited maximum friction force values at an applied load of 50 N and a sliding speed of 5 m/s. The coefficient of friction was between 0.29 and 0.85 at a 3 m/s sliding speed and a 30N load for all the developed samples. Wear test results showed that a minimum SWR of 3.82 mm(3)/N-mm was achieved by JEE composite while maximum SWR was 15.08 mm(3)/N-mm by pure epoxy sample at 3 m/s sliding speed and 10 N applied load. JEC composite achieved the highest interfacial temperature among all prepared specimens at 15 degrees C, 36 degrees C, and 65 degrees C for 10, 30 and 50 N applied load at 5 m/s sliding speed. The Scanning electron microscopy appears in the presence of wear out surfaces after tribological test and helps to identify the failure mechanism after tribological performance. The morphological analysis of the FEE and FEC composites uncovered lengthened fracture patterns and broad matrix surface breakage. Additionally, fiber debonding and sliding during tribological analysis led to significant matrix damage.
The development of eco-friendly composites using recycled high-density polyethylene (rHDPE) and date palm leaf (DPL) fibers is often hindered by poor interfacial bonding. This incompatibility arises from the hydrophobic nature of the polymer matrix versus the hydrophilic nature of the natural fibers. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of fiber treatment and nanoparticle modification on the microstructure and performance of rHDPE/DPL/ZnO composites, prioritizing efficient fiber-side treatments over matrix processing. This study was carried out by chemically treating DPL fibers with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and stearic acid, followed by modification with zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles to improve adhesion. The composites were then subjected to a comprehensive suite of characterization tests, including tensile testing for mechanical strength, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for thermal stability, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for thermal transitions, X-ray diffraction (XRD) for crystalline structure, and optical microscopy for morphological evaluation. The findings show that the treatments significantly enhanced the material properties across all metrics. Tensile testing revealed that the A5 composite achieved the highest mechanical performance, with a Young's modulus of approximately 1.2 GPa and an elongation at break of roughly 9%. TGA results indicated improved thermal stability; specifically, sample A4 showed a degradation temperature (Td) increase of 8.7 degrees C (+1.83%) over A3, while sample A6 showed a gain of 5.1 degrees C (+1.07%) over A5. XRD analysis confirmed an efficient structural reinforcement, reaching a maximum crystallinity of 74.06%. Furthermore, melt flow index (MFI) analysis demonstrated that while fiber reinforcement naturally increases viscosity, stearic acid treatment provides a lubricating effect that maintains MFI values between 6 and 7 g/10 min, ensuring excellent processability for injection molding and 3D printing. Finally, optical microscopy and morphological studies observed superior fiber dispersion and cleaner interfaces, indicating that the fibers were evenly spread and well-separated within the rHDPE structure. It was concluded that the combination of chemical treatments and ZnO nanoparticle modification effectively bridges the compatibility gap between rHDPE and DPL fibers. These findings underscore the viability of these modified composites for high-performance structural and industrial applications.
The aim of this study is to investigate the manufacturability of Melilotus officinalis (L.) reinforced epoxy biocomposites as a renewable biofiller and to characterize the mechanical, thermal, and dielectric properties of these materials. For this purpose, composites containing biomass at 0, 3, 6, and 9 wt.% were prepared; the samples were examined by tensile testing, FTIR, SEM, EDX, XRD, Shore D hardness, thermal conductivity, and dielectric analysis. The findings showed that with increasing M. officinalis content, tensile strength, hardness, and density decreased, while ductility and elongation at break improved. The significant decrease in thermal conductivity revealed an increase in heat insulation efficiency. Dielectric analyses showed that strong interfacial polarization occurred at low frequencies, and the dielectric constant and loss values decreased as the frequency increased. SEM examinations confirmed that the plant-derived filler was homogeneously distributed and formed acceptable interfacial adhesion with the matrix. In conclusion, although the use of synthetic epoxy matrix and the decrease in mechanical strength limit load-bearing structural applications, M. officinalis is a promising biofiller for lightweight and partially bio-based epoxy composites thanks to its increased ductility and improved thermal insulation properties.
Despite that artificial nerve guide conduits (NGC) have been widely applied in nerve tissue repair for treating peripheral nerve injury (PNI), those apparatuses face great challenges in repairing long-gap nerve defects due to their non-conductive nature. Herein, we report that such clinical issue can be addressed by a bio-mimic polycaprolactone (PCL)-based nerve conduit doped with conductive mixtures (denoted as PP) of polyethylene dioxythiophene (PEDOT) and polystyrene sulfonate (PSS). The PCL-PP nerve conduits demonstrated porous reticular fibrous networks with biocompatible and physicochemical properties. The structure novelty endows the material with a robust mechanical character with a Young's modulus of 0.32 MPa and a tensile strength of 2.9 MPa. Benefited from the capability of conducting endogenous electrical stimulation due to the high conductivity of 5.8 & times; 10(-3) S/m, the PCL-PP nerve conduits can regulate the biological behavior of Schwann cells (SCs), and remarkably promote the myelin sheath growth and regeneration of nerve tissues in a 10 mm sciatic nerve defect SD rat model. Compared to the contrast nerve conduits without PP compositions, the PCL-PP nerve conduits accelerated the recovery rate of extremity motor function of SD rats by a factor of 1.25-fold. These findings prove that our reported novel PCL-PP composite nerve conduit with functional integration of bioelectrical stimulation is a promising therapeutic approach toward PNI therapy.
The dependence of the carbon black (CB) industry on fossil fuels has prompted rubber manufacturers to explore sustainable filler alternatives that align with modern environmental priorities. Among these, nanoclay (NC) has emerged over recent decades as a promising candidate due to its superior mechanical reinforcement and morphological advantages. However, its widespread adoption has been hindered by challenges such as poor dispersion within polymer matrices. In this study, the impact of hybridizing NC with CB on the curing, mechanical, and morphological properties of natural rubber (NR)/styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) blends was experimentally investigated for potential industrial applications. Composites were prepared by partially replacing CB with varying NC loadings (5, 10 &15 phr), and their morphology was analysed using XRD and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Results confirmed the formation of dispersed and intercalated nanostructures at 5 and 10 phr NC loading. The curing properties revealed a 15% reduction in cure time and a 20% decrease in maximum torque with NC incorporation. Notably, tensile strength improved by 15% at 10 phr replacement. Compression set and abrasion resistance also shows an increment at 10 Phr loading. So, the results show that optimum compound properties were obtained at 10 Phr and above that agglomeration starts and a reduction in physical properties were noticed.
The introduction of the first commercially available polycarbohafnium precursor opened new pathways in the polymer-to-ceramic route towards ultra-high temperature ceramics. We present a straightforward chemical crosslinking method to produce HfSiCO ceramics by reacting SHP-199 with tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), catalyzed by the intrinsic acidity of SHP-199. This sol-gel–like process produces robust HfSiCO monoliths and fibers with a 92% ceramic yield, excellent thermal stability, and structural integrity up to 1600 °C. While pyrolyzing SHP-199 alone results in nearly pure HfC, the SHP-199/TEOS mixture investigated here forms a multiphase ceramic containing HfO 2 , SiO 2 , and HfSiO 4 , but no SiC or HfC. Strong Raman signals of carbon at 1600 °C suggest kinetically hindered reduction of the oxide. This work demonstrates the development of a synergistic Hf-Si network and provides an accessible pathway to high-temperature HfSiCO ceramics and fibers.
The extensive use of petroleum-based polymers has exacerbated environmental pollution and fossil fuel depletion, spurring global interest in eco-friendly alternatives. Biodegradable materials serve as a potential replacement for non-biodegradable polymers. Among them, Cellulose, a prevalent natural biopolymer, having emerged as a promising material due to its affordability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, cellulose alone have poor properties, therefore modification may be reequired. Recent research investigated the preparation of cellulose and Montmorillonite (MMT) clay films using the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate as a solvent. The study is aimed to evaluate the impact of MMT on the mechanical, absorption, and thermal properties of cellulose films. The results indicated that incorporating MMT significantly improved the films' moisture and water absorption properties. Moisture absorption decreased from 15.73 wt% to 8.55 wt%, and water absorption reduced from 22.68 wt% to 9.15 wt% as MMT content increased from 0% to 3%. Additionally, the water contact angle increased by approximately 54%, suggesting reduced hydrophilicity due to enhanced interaction between cellulose and clay particles. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that the glass transition temperature of the cellulose films increased with MMT loading, peaking at 89.447 ℃ with 3% MMT. While crystallization temperature remained unchanged or decreased, tensile stress and modulus improved with increased MMT content, achieving a maximum tensile strength of 32.06 MPa and modulus of 1.53 GPa at 3% MMT. The thermal stability of the films also enhanced, with a maximum improvement of 35.6% in thermal stability at 3% MMT loading. In conclusion, the research demonstrated that cellulose/MMT nanocomposite films, produced via solvent casting with EMIMAc, exhibited notable improvements in mechanical, absorption, and thermal properties due to effective cellulose-MMT interactions.
This study introduces a novel polyaniline–chitosan/nano TiO 2 composite (PAn-CS) synthesized through nanoparticle-incorporating to modify surface features, thereby improving its ability to adsorb and remove anionic rose Bengal (RB) dye. The composite was produced by incorporating TiO 2 , SiO 2 , or ZrO 2 nanoparticles into the PAn-CS composite using chemical oxidation via a single-stage precipitation procedure. Analysis of the structural and morphological characteristics was carried out with X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared and scanning electron microscopy. The composites’ thermal stability, surface properties, and surface charge of composites were also evaluated. The adsorption process was investigated through kinetics, isotherms, thermodynamics, and mechanistic insights. Results indicated that adding nano-oxides enhanced the PAn-CS composite’s affinity for RB removal. Optimal TiO 2 -content at 10% wt. howed a maximum adsorption efficiency of 96% within 60 minutes at 25 o C and pH 4, with a 0.025 g adsorbent dose and an initial dye concentration of 25 mg/L. Notably, the PAn-CS/TiO 2 composite demonstrated the highest RB adsorption capacity of 643.62 mgg -1 . The adsorption data were well fitted by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, suggesting chemisorptions as the primary mechanism. The adsorption involved electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, and π-π interactions. The composite also showed excellent stability and reusability over five cycles, highlighting its potential for practical and sustainable dye-removal applications.
Polymer-inorganic hybrid (PIH) materials combine the flexibility of polymers with the mechanical strength and thermal stability of inorganic components, offering significant potential for applications in energy storage, optoelectronics, biomedical devices, and environmental remediation. This review identifies major challenges including poor interfacial compatibility, limited scalability, environmental impact, and discusses strategic solutions such as interface engineering, computational modeling, and morphology optimization. Recent advances are discussed in the context of their transformative applicability for next-generation devices, emphasizing sustainability and practical implementation.
This study designed and fabricated polyurethane-based granular ceramic/polyurethane composites. The dynamic mechanical properties and anti-penetration performance of different composites were systematically investigated by varying the hardness of the polyurethane matrix and the material composition of ceramic spheres. Penetration experiments revealed that composites with higher polyurethane matrix hardness exhibited larger damage areas on the rear elastic surface while maintaining favorable anti-penetration performance. Among various ceramic spheres tested, alumina ceramic beads demonstrated superior ballistic resistance. Finite element simulations were employed to reconstruct the penetration failure modes of the composites with enhanced precision. The simulation results indicate that high-hardness ceramic spheres serve as the primary factor contributing to both the excellent anti-penetration characteristics and the extensive damage area observed in post-impact composite structures.
Understanding hydrogen-polymer interactions is essential for designing lightweight and durable hydrogen storage systems for future, sustainable mobility. This study applies molecular dynamics simulations to examine hydrogen solubility, diffusion, permeation and the resulting mechanical response in two representative thermoplastic polymers: polyethylene (PE) and polyamide 6 (PA6). Hydrogen uptake was determined through Grand Canonical Monte Carlo methods, while diffusion coefficients were derived from a mean-squared-displacement analysis. Permeability coefficients were obtained as the product of solubility and diffusivity according to the literature. To assess the mechanical behavior, uniaxial tensile tests were simulated on an atomic scale, under various pressures with and without dissolved hydrogen. The results show that the amorphous regions of PE exhibit a permeability coefficient approximately one order of magnitude higher than that of the amorphous regions of PA6. The semi-crystalline nature of polymers was considered by applying an analytical correction. The corrected permeability values align well with the experimentally measured data from the literature with deviations between -34 % and +24 % for PE and PA6, respectively. In a hydrogen-saturated state, both polymers reveal a marked hydrogen-induced reduction in mechanical response, with PE losing up to 75 % and PA6 up to 85 % of their predicted stiffness under elevated hydrogen pressures and tensile loading conditions. The findings provide molecular-level insights into hydrogen-induced mechanisms in polymers which show high potential to be used in thermoplastic composites for the next generation of Type V hydrogen vessels.
A set of semicontinuous Pickering emulsion copolymerizations was performed to promote the incorporation of SiO 2 nanoparticles (nSi) into styrene–n-butyl acrylate copolymer matrices with very different initial mechanical behaviors, evaluating their influence on the final mechanical performance. The proposed strategy employed a low percentage of nSi as both a stabilizing and a reinforcing agent, replacing traditional surfactants and enabling the formation of nanocomposite latexes with excellent colloidal stability. By systematically varying comonomer ratios (S/BA, from 70/30 to 40/60, w/w) and feeding profiles, materials exhibiting tunable mechanical responses ranging from rigid to soft behavior were prepared. Tensile testing revealed that the introduction of nSi induced different types of mechanical modifications in the original matrices (e.g., a considerable decrease in rupture strain with non-statistically significant changes in the other parameters, or the rigidization of the original matrix upon nSi incorporation). However, the most pronounced improvements were observed in styrene-rich systems, where simultaneous increases in modulus, yield stress, rupture stress, rupture strain, and toughness were obtained, suggesting that the Pickering process promoted efficient nanoparticle dispersion. These findings highlight the potential of Pickering emulsion copolymerization as a versatile route for producing surfactant-free nanocomposites with adjustable mechanical properties and suitable nanofiller distribution. Besides, the results confirm the wide variety of mechanical modifications that can be induced by the presence of nSi in polymer matrices with different initial mechanical behaviors, despite considering the same chemical system (S/BA).
Particle reinforcement is one of the methods used in natural hybrid composite manufacturing to enhance mechanical characteristics. In this work, four distinct hybrid laminates were prepared using natural fibers and four different weight percentages (Wt.%) of titanium oxide nano filler by the compression molding procedure. Epoxy served as the matrix, and sisal and banana fibers were utilized as natural reinforcements. With the addition of the hybrid fiber reinforcement and TiO 2 filler, the mechanical properties of flexural, impact, and tensile characteristics improved greatly (impact energy of 13.452 J, flexural strength of 94.86 MPa, and tensile strength of 18.6 MPa). Mechanical performance was enhanced in polymer-based composites by the addition of 3 Wt. % TiO 2 filler. The features are improved by the filler substitutes, which fill the space between the fiber and matrix phases. When 3 weight percent TiO 2 (T3) was added, the minimum wear of 13 μm with the Coefficient of Friction 0.0068 was observed for the T3 at a 20 N load, with a frictional force of 0.2 N.
