In this article, we analyse the textual variants concerning the toponym Shimron (Masoretic Text) and Shim'on (Old Greek) in Joshua. In Joshua 11:1, 12:20 and 19:15, the MT consistently reads the place name as Shimron while the OG reads Shim'on. Evidence from ancient Near Eastern literary sources and regional memory preserve the name without the /r/, showing agreement with the OG. The later variant in the MT likely reflects a scribal harmonisation to Shimron ben Issachar (Gen 46; Num 26; 1 Chron 7). This case study underscores the complex scribal processes involved in the transmission of geographic lists and reveals how anthroponymic and toponymic conflations may shape textual traditions.
A complete storage jar with a hieratic inscription was uncovered at Tel Azekah, providing new evidence for Egyptian administrative activity in the Southern Levant at the very end of the Late Bronze Age. The jar was found in a destruction layer dated to the second half of the 12th century BCE and thus represents the latest securely dated hieratic text from the region. The inscription, written in ink on the shoulder of the jar, was part of a title, possibly referring to an official in charge of tax collection. The results from the petrographic analysis indicate that the jar originated from neighbouring Tell es. -S. afi/Gath. The findings display the ongoing presence of Egyptian-trained personnel in the Shephelah and the importance of Tel Azekah and its elite in the imperial administrative system.
Exceptional Lower Palaeolithic handaxes were discovered at a newly identified extensive Lower Palaeolithic Acheulean landscape in Sakhnin Valley, Israel. Sakhnin Valley exhibits rich surface concentrations of lithic artefacts, primarily comprising handaxes, cores and flakes, alongside pristine flint nodules and numerous geodes. Similar items were identified at subsurface locations, and future excavations are expected to uncover in situ archaeological deposits. The handaxes reported here are part of a larger collection of hundreds of tools bearing typical Levantine Lower Palaeolithic Acheulean characteristics. What makes these handaxes particularly noteworthy is that they were shaped around fossil imprints or other geological features embedded in the selected flint nodules. While thousands of handaxes are documented from Lower Old World Palaeolithic sites, fossil-bearing handaxes are extremely rare and garner special attention. This collection of unique bifaces provides valuable insight into their makers' technological and aesthetic preferences, worldviews and relationship with stone. We propose that these handaxes served as tools and mediators between humans and the cosmos, conceived as objects of potency enhanced by the primeval fossil imprints and unique geological features within the stone. The richly embellished rocky landscape of Sakhnin Valley, particularly with its abundant geodes, may have encouraged early humans to express their profound and extraordinary relationships with the cosmos via stones.
This article discusses the monumental Iron Age four-chambered gate excavated some 30 years ago at 'En Hazeva. Since the completion of the site's excavation, only a handful of preliminary papers were published by Rudolph Cohen and Yigal Yisrael, the excavators of the site on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, addressing in passing the stratigraphical and architectural settings of the gate. Some scholars have questioned these descriptions, suggesting that they may not accurately reflect the true nature of the remains. In recent years, the 'En Hazeva finds have been the focus of extensive scientific analyses in preparation for the publication of Cohen and Yisrael's excavations. The time has finally come to place the Iron Age fortress gate accurately within its archaeological and stratigraphical context.
This article reexamines various aspects of the burial chapel of Melisende, queen of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (similar to 1105-1161 CE), which is integrated into the Tomb of Mary in Jerusalem's Kidron Valley. The article analyses the various components of the Frankish chapel, with an emphasis on the eastern arcosolium, which served as a personal altar for prayer for the repose of the queen's soul. The article proposes an exact location for where Melisende's sarcophagus once stood, before disappearing after the end of the Frankish rule. Another point raised in the article is the symbolism of the stone sculpture of the burial chapel, which, it is argued, contains evidence for the number of years of Melisende's reign in the form of the white lily flower. While the Frankish kings were buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Tomb of Mary became a parallel burial place for the Frankish queens. In addition to Melisende, other female rulers are known to have been buried there, including Morphia, Melisende's mother. The comparison between the royal burial places highlights their similarity and the symbolism of the earthly reign of the kings and queens of Jerusalem compared to the heavenly reign of Jesus and Mary.
During the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, highly valuable ivory was continuously consumed in the Southern Levant, part of a Near Eastern interregional exchange sphere of prestigious commodities. The exquisite artistry of several ivory artefacts, their elite find contexts and the exotic origins of the raw material resulted in a specific art-historical approach to reconstructing ivory exchange and the cultural meanings of ivory artefacts. This paper offers another perspective on these phenomena, looking holistically at the spatial, chronological, taxonomic, typological and contextual properties of a large, systematically constructed database of artefacts. We show that both use and meaning of ivory fluctuated chronologically. It served to broadcast the authority of socio-political elites, as well as, at times, the economic success of individuals. We evaluate the diachronically changing consumption trends in light of recent theories emphasising the role of individual agents in ancient economies and underscore the material's cultural appropriation in the Southern Levant. We highlight the significant, previously underestimated, Nilotic (Egyptian and Nubian) agency in this exchange. Methodologically, we demonstrate that reconstructing complex economic and social interactions requires a detailed contextual approach.
The Greek inscriptions discovered on Delos ascribed to (former) inhabitants of Ashkelon and Yavneh may offer insight into the ritual customs practiced in these regions. Noteworthy instances of such inscriptions, dating back to the 2nd and early 1st centuries BCE, explicitly prohibit the sacrifice of either goats or both goats and pigs. In this paper, we endeavour to elucidate both the meaning of these inscriptions and the ritual practices associated with them. To achieve this goal, we delve into the zooarchaeological data found at these sites, draw comparisons between the findings of this and earlier periods, and explore literary sources referring to Levantine societies. Both types of evidence, zooarchaeology and textual, suggest that these prohibitions on the sacrifice of pigs and/or goats can be attributed to a specific ritual belief or taboo associated with these animals, which reflects the origins of the inscriptions' dedicators.
The excavation at Horvat Tevet revealed a unique cremation burial assemblage, dating to the Iron IIC. This diverse assemblage, richer than comparable burials throughout the Levant, includes unparalleled pottery objects and luxury items that reflect extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia and emphasise the high status of the deceased and the community that carried out the burial. The opulence of the burial contrasts sharply with meagre findings in the site's Iron IIC occupational level. In this article, we present the assemblage and discuss the practice of cremation burials in the Iron Age Levant. In this light, we then demonstrate how this assemblage may contribute to the ongoing discussion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire's socio-economic dynamics and territorial strategies in the Jezreel Valley and beyond.
This article presents a comprehensive study of an extensive cornet collection discovered at the Chalcolithic site of Teleilat Ghassul. These enigmatic conical vessels, considered a fossile directeur of the period, have never been systematically studied to date. The current research examines their material sources, morphological characteristics, shaping techniques and discard patterns. Finally, we propose a new framework for understanding their social role and function.
This study presents a comprehensive petrographic analysis of Roman discus lamps from the Southern Levant, focusing on the Syrian-Palestinian variant. These lamps, dating for the most part to the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, are identified as a localised version of Kennedy's Type 5 and are characterised by their unique decorative motifs and thin-walled calcareous clay composition. Through both quantitative thin-section petrographic analysis and qualitative analysis, this research investigates the raw material sources, production techniques and distribution networks of these lamps. In total, 90 lamps from 17 archaeological sites were analysed, revealing subtle regional variations in clay procurement and manufacturing processes. The results indicate that these lamps were predominantly produced using foraminiferous marl clays sourced from areas near limestone outcrops, particularly along the coast between Tyre and Sidon. The compositional analysis highlights the influence of the local geology, especially the calcareous sediments and marine bioclasts from the region. These findings offer new insights into the interaction between local and regional lamp-production practices and their role in the broader Roman economy of the region.
The northernmost part of Tel Hazor's lower city, Area H, was first excavated nearly seventy years ago, revealing the remarkable Orthostat Temple. Despite its significance, this area was not investigated further until 2023, when excavations were renewed to reassess its stratigraphy and settlement patterns. Our findings challenge previous assumptions regarding the extent and settlement density of the Late Bronze Age city at Hazor. Contrary to earlier interpretations of a continuously occupied lower city, our excavations indicate that much of its northern sector was uninhabited during this period. In addition, the stratigraphic sequence of the Orthostat Temple reveals previously unrecognised architectural modifications, suggesting evolving religious practices and shifting socio-political dynamics. These results warrant a reassessment of Hazor's urban development and its role in the broader Canaanite landscape. By integrating new stratigraphic and ceramic analyses with past research, this study offers fresh insights into the transformation that Hazor's lower city underwent from the Middle to Late Bronze Age.
Ostracon Berlin P. 10679 (TADAE D7.24) was first published in 1908 and has since attracted attention mostly due to its use of the term (b)psh'-cognate with the Hebrew psh known from the Hebrew Bible in relation to the Passover. The text itself has generally been considered opaque and unclear. However, as shown in this article, the ostracon has thus far been read in the wrong order. It should be read convex-to-concave (cv > cc) rather than concave-to-convex (cc > cv)-a conclusion based upon philological and epigraphic analyses. The new interpretation provides a much improved reading, adding greater clarity and consistency to the text. The article cautions against presupposing a cc > cv flow of writing on ostraca and suggests that other confusing cases could benefit from a reevaluation. Unfortunately, the term (b)psh' remains as obscure in the newly assembled context as it has always been.
This paper is concerned with the earliest of the Iron Age gates at Megiddo, Gate 3165. Excavated by the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (formerly the Oriental Institute) of the University of Chicago, it has never been adequately studied or published. Recent soundings in the gate area by the Megiddo Expedition have added new data to our understanding of the gate. The present paper takes a close look at all the published data in order to clarify the stratigraphic position of the gate, its structural relations and its chronological/historical context. In the process, many details emerge about the gate's appearance that have not previously been considered. The paper proposes a new model for the urban development of Megiddo in the Iron IIA.
This paper re-examines a unique, badly damaged stone relief depicting a human figure, discovered in an isolated building in the agricultural area near Shivta. Originally mentioned briefly by Baumgarten in his survey of Shivta's vicinity, the stone is analysed here for its possible iconography and context. We propose that the relief may represent a woman with a child, potentially alluding to the motif of the Nursing Mother or possibly even the type of Maria Galaktotrophousa, common in the early Byzantine period, particularly in Egypt. The peculiar stone prompts a re-evaluation of the building, traditionally considered a farmhouse. We suggest that this and other buildings in the agricultural area, some adorned with prominent Christian symbols, could have served a distinct ecclesiastic or monastic function. This unique relic from the Byzantine era, despite its simplicity and damage, offers significant insights to the Christian way of life in this desert region.
In this contribution, we examine the custom of depositing lamps concealed between two bowls in a practice that became prevalent in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age and persisted into the early Iron Age. Through meticulous examination of eleven such deposits unearthed at Tel Azekah, we elucidate the chronological evolution of this practice and its constituent elements. This investigation prompts a discussion of the role of the practice in architecture-related rituals and the contextual factors contributing to its inception in the days of Egyptian colonialism and its endurance up to the Iron IIA.
Like many known elite Roman houses, the Late Roman mansion discovered in the Giv'ati Parking Lot excavations in Jerusalem and dated ca. 312-363 CE was primarily illuminated by sunlight. The mansion had two spacious courtyards, one of them with a peristyle, toward which the openings of most of the rooms on the first floor faced. However, those rooms and spaces located away from the 'natural light' sources, as well as those that had no windows, needed artificial lighting during the day, and the entire house, together with its open areas, required illumination during the dark hours and seasons. The article discusses the natural and artificial lighting of the house, with a focus on the specific type of oil lamps discovered in the structure, such as round lamps with decorated discuses classified as derivatives of the Broneer XXV/Loeschcke VIII type, the most popular lamps in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Roman Imperial period. For the first time, large quantities of figured discus lamps, including complete ones, were recorded in well-stratified contexts, confirming that the production of these lamps in Jerusalem continued well into the 4th century CE. The discussion includes the chronological, iconographic and distributional patterns of the lamps.
The article suggests that the account of Manasseh's wall (2 Chron 33:14) reflects an old memory of the massive terrace wall that the king had constructed above the ravine of the Tyropoeon Valley. Its construction was intended to support the slope of the recently built quarter erected on hewn terraces on the western slope of the Southeastern Hill. The new quarter was constructed after Hezekiah had transferred Jerusalem's main source of water from the Gihon Spring to the southern edge of the hill. At the time of the terrace construction, Jerusalem was fortified by walls that encompassed the Royal Quarter, the Southeastern Hill and the Southwestern Hill. After the city's destruction in 587 BCE, the Southwestern Hill was abandoned for hundreds of years. Thus, when Nehemiah fortified the city, he erected its southwestern wall on top of the terrace. Hence, the Chronicler anachronistically described Manasseh's terrace as a city wall, reflecting the way it functioned in his own time.
Excavations conducted in 2017 and 2019 near Tel Shalem in northern Israel revealed the impressive remains of a Roman fort. The fort was constructed during the early 2nd century CE and functioned until its planned dismantling and abandonment in the mid-3rd century CE. According to a wealth of archaeological and epigraphical finds, during the last two phases of occupation the Alae VII Phrygum, an auxiliary unit of the Roman army, was stationed at the fort. Impressive remains of glass windowpane fragments were discovered inside the regimental shrine, within the principia, the headquarters complex of the fort. The windowpanes were set prior to its refurbishment during the third phase, in 199-200 CE, and were used until its abandonment. This article focuses on the overall analysis of the windowpane fragments, which constitute one of the earliest attestations of glass windowpanes in the Levant. Their secure dating and well-documented context contribute to our understanding of the early production technique and use of such windowpanes in a military sacred context in the Southern Levant. The online supplement presents the conservation processes of the windowpane fragments.
