Drawing data from the International Corpus of English (ICE) and employing 14 quantitative syntactic complexity metrics, this study investigates the relationships between British English (BrE), Canadian English (CanE), American English (AmE), Northern Ireland English (IreNE), Southern Ireland English (IreSE), Australian English (AusE) and New Zealand English (NZE). The study found that: 1) Compared with BrE, the other six varieties demonstrate a measurable trend towards structural simplification, primarily characterized by a lower proportion of subordinate clauses (DC/T, DC/C, CT/T, C/T), fewer verb and complex noun phrases (VP/T, CN/T), shorter mean length of sentence and T-unit (MLS, MLT), and simpler sentence structure (C/S). Meanwhile, they exhibit complexification features in coordination structures (CP/C, T/S) and clause length (MLC). 2) CanE, AmE, IreNE, IreSE, AusE and NZE show similar syntactic complexity patterns, which differ from BrE. Language history and language contact resulting from population mobility are important factors influencing CanE, AmE, IreNE, IreSE, AusE and NZE to present more similar syntactic complexity patterns. The insight provided by this study is that although these English varieties all belong to the Inner Circle in Kachru's Three Circles Model, they still show differences in syntactic complexity. This finding once again shows that language is a human-driven complex adaptive system.
Abstract Research has shown that when ‘xxx English’ is used in reference to an English variety, the attribute ‘xxx’ is more likely to be an adjective than a noun. This is true of traditional ENL and ESL varieties, whose speakers can legitimately claim that ‘English is our language’. EFL varieties tend to follow the same trend, with ‘China English’ being a glaring exception to date. Corpus analysis shows that the pre-head attribute of a noun phrase may be filled by a noun (e.g., Belgium, Canada) or an adjective derived from it (e.g., Belgian, Canadian). A pre-head nominal attribute expresses the meaning ‘a type of’ (e.g., ‘communication skill’, ‘generation gap’), while a pre-head adjective signals either a quality (e.g., ‘smart city’ – with quality of being smart) or membership of a class (e.g., ‘smart card’, distinct from other cards). A pre-head nominal attribute and its adjectival counterpart signaling ‘class membership’ thus share a classificatory function. This helps explain stylistic variation such as free alternation between ‘Scottish flag’ and ‘Scotland flag’ in the same text; nor is there anything unusual using names of countries in sports reporting (e.g., ‘Brazil national football team’). But such a stylistic shift is semantically nuanced and not always licensed (consider, e.g., ‘Ukrainian security’ and ‘Ukraine war’, where the pre-head attributes ‘Ukrainian’ and ‘Ukraine’ are not interchangeable). The adjectival form of a toponym is usually longer in speech and writing than the toponym itself. Apparently, phonology matters when naming an English variety, witness the rarity of ‘Guamanian English’ and ‘Peruvian English’.
This study examines how love is metaphorically represented by non-native English speakers, focusing on German learners of English as a second language. Drawing on interviews conducted in 2024, the research investigates the metaphorical linguistic features and conceptualizations used by 96 bachelor's degree students when expressing love in English. Participants were asked to describe situations in which they would express love and to provide examples of how they would formulate such expressions. As the interviews took place in English used as a lingua franca, the dataset reflects communicative practices characteristic of ELF interactions, including creative or non-standard metaphor use. Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) serves as the analytical framework for identifying and interpreting the metaphorical patterns in the data. By relying on naturally occurring language rather than introspective intuition, the study addresses critiques of CMT, including its dependence on researcher interpretation and limited empirical grounding. The findings show how socio-cultural background, L1 conceptual structures and L2 proficiency shape metaphorical expressions of love, contributing to a deeper understanding of emotional metaphor use in second language contexts.
This study examined the production of English lexical stress in minimal pairs by Mandarin Chinese speakers of English as a second language (ESL). Chinese ESL speakers completed a sentence-reading task containing noun-verb minimal pairs (e.g., CONduct vs. conDUCT), and their productions were acoustically analysed for pitch, intensity, duration and vowel quality. Results showed that the speakers distinguished stress patterns primarily through pitch and intensity, though with small effect sizes. We also found that Chinese ESL speakers displayed a strong first-syllable bias, and the initial syllable was consistently louder even in verbs. Duration did not significantly differ between nouns and verbs in these minimal pairs, indicating limited implementation of this acoustic correlate. Notably, there was limited evidence of vowel quality reduction to schwa, contrasting with perception studies where vowel centralisation is highly salient in stress placement decisions. These findings highlight a production-perception mismatch and suggest that the lack of vowel reduction represents a feature of this L2 English variety. Our data also contrast with previous production studies reporting successful implementation of all acoustic cues by Chinese ESL speakers, and we discussed the differences regarding the ecological validity of elicitation method.
Translanguaging, a significant linguistic trend, is capturing the interest of various academic fields. However, existing literature has yet to adequately examine the role of translanguaging humor in entertainment media. To investigate this issue, we employ discourse analysis to explore the creative performance of translanguaging humor and its audience reception, as manifested in the parasocial interactions through danmu comments. Results show that, firstly, four translanguaging strategies are employed to create humor in Chinese entertainment shows: bilingual puns, literal translation, performance of 'bad' English and code-approximation. Secondly, beneath the humor lies a complex layer of emotions that are often paradoxical in nature. Furthermore, the search for a fluid linguistic identity is manifested in the creation and reception of translanguaging humor, which challenges monoglossic ideologies that prioritize rigid language boundaries and embraces the dynamic and hybrid nature of translingual practices across diverse linguistic landscapes.
A cosmopolis may be understood as a durable, cross-regional cultural-political order in which a prestigious bridge language provides the central anchor and the shared medium for knowledge, cultural authority and institutional practice across multilingual settings. In this article I hypothesise that, in the early 21st century, English in international employ is beginning to occupy a socio-cultural position comparable in certain respects to that of the pre-modern formations associated with Sanskrit, Latin and Classical Arabic. To examine this possibility, I begin with a deliberately broad, first-pass identification of the most salient cosmopolis features, limiting the analysis to the characteristic profile of the prestige bridge language that underwrites each cosmopolis. I then consider whether a comparable profile plausibly holds for global modern English, drawing on existing research on its global role. The results are preliminary, but they suggest that this perspective may offer a useful analytical lens for investigating English in its present sociolinguistic position, and that it merits more systematic follow-up work.
The present study investigated Thai speakers' perceptions of native English accents and Thai-accented English (TaE) in two contexts: language teaching and everyday communication. Using a direct attitudinal approach, data from 125 Thai speakers revealed attitudinal patterns toward native Englishes and TaE. Native accents were viewed as highly desirable in the academic setting and served as models for participants' aspiration. Unlike Thai teachers with TaE, those with a native-like accent received high levels of acceptance, nearly comparable to native English teachers, despite their non-native speaker status. Thus, having native(-like) accent appears to be a critical factor for suitability as a language teacher to a greater extent than nativeness. In addition, while TaE was generally accepted by most participants, this acceptance did not extend to considering TaE speakers suitable as language teachers. The present study extends the native speaker fallacy by proposing the native accent fallacy which suggests that ideal language teachers are defined by their native(-like) accents. Implications are discussed within the Global Englishes Language Teaching (GELT) paradigm to mitigate native-speakerism and language-based discrimination in teacher recruitment and pedagogy.
This paper investigates the frequency of commentary pragmatic markers in Ghanaian and Ugandan Englishes, and their use across different text categories, using the Ghanaian and Ugandan components of the International Corpus of English. These markers, which are grouped into assessment, emphasis, evidential, hearsay and manner-of-speaking markers, are explored from a variational pragmatic approach. The results show that Ghanaian English users employ an overall higher frequency of commentary pragmatic markers than Ugandan English users. Ghanaian English users utilise more commentary pragmatic markers in private and public dialogues and printed writing than Ugandan English users, while the latter employ more commentary pragmatic markers in monologues than their Ghanaian English counterparts. The study confirms the influence of local African languages and cultures on the use of some English commentary pragmatic markers, thus contributing to the research on nativisation and pragmatic variation in these varieties.
This study examines the use of English on signage in the areas surrounding two U.S. military bases in Japan, Yokosuka Navy Base and Yokota Air Base, highlighting the diverse functions of English that emerge through interactions between American residents and Japanese locals. In these areas, including streets that have become tourist destinations for Japanese visitors, various commercial establishments coexist, some offering authentic products and services for Americans, and others commodifying American culture for Japanese tourists. Within these public spaces, English signage, along with other semiotic resources, plays a central role in shaping a uniquely commodified environment infused with American culture. The study identifies two key features of English signage that distinguish these areas from other parts of Japan: (1) the prominence of informational English signage targeting Americans, such as monolingual English traffic signs and church signs, which reflects the dense American population; and (2) the symbolic use of English by Japanese shop owners, which do not signal modernity or globalization as English signage typically does elsewhere in Japan, but instead commodifies American culture to attract Japanese tourists. These uses of English on signage, alongside other semiotic materials, shape a unique visual and cultural landscape, underscoring the multifaceted roles of English in non-English-speaking countries like Japan, including both the 'authentic' use of English in communication with Americans and the 'commodified authenticity' conveyed through English employed by Japanese shop owners to appeal to Japanese audiences.
This study examines English-Korean hybrid neologisms as a dynamic feature of youth language in contemporary Korea. Employing a mixed-methods approach that integrates linguistic analysis with survey data from university students, it investigates how hybrid expressions such as gatsaeng 'God-life' and juchabilleon 'parking villain' are formed through derivation, compounding, blending, pseudo-affixation, wordplay, and semantic duplication. These hybrids creatively embed English lexical elements within Korean grammatical and discursive structures, reflecting both linguistic innovation and cultural localization. Survey findings reveal that such hybrid expressions are widely used in casual conversation and digital spaces, often without conscious awareness of their hybrid nature - indicating lexical normalization. While participants only moderately associated hybrids with global or cultural identity, they valued them for their brevity, relatability, and ability to foster peer connection in fast-paced, media-rich environments. Some hybrids, such as noepisyeol 'brain + official', also function as tools for humor, irony and social critique. Overall, the study argues that English-Korean hybrid vocabulary serves not only as a site of linguistic creativity but also as a sociocultural marker. By blending global English with local communicative practices, Korean youth use hybrid terms to construct identity, reinforce group belonging, and engage with increasingly digitalized cultural spaces. These findings contribute to broader discussions on language change, identity and media influence in non-English-dominant contexts.
This paper analyses linguistic information regarding signage developed by Ugandan English speakers at the grassroots level, as a category of non-elite users of English. It specifically examines linguistic signs displayed at small‑scale informal businesses, focusing on the source of the signs and the language(s) used in terms of features and the justifications for the choice of the language(s). The results show three types of signs: those written in English (which are predominant), those that blend English and Acholi, and those written in Acholi. Where English is involved, the findings reveal that the choice was mainly based on attracting a wider readership and thus clientele, as well as the fact that English is the functional official language in Uganda. It was also observed that both standard and nonstandard English were used. The source of the signs was reported to be grassroots users of English but sometimes artists and/or acrolectal users of English were involved in writing/drawing the signs.
Recent years have seen an increase in forced migration from the Global South, e.g., Congolese refugees with long transits in Uganda, to countries in the Global North, like Norway. Many of these newly-arrived Congolese refugees in Norway have English in their linguistic repertoires after decades-long transits in Uganda. English can thus be used as a lingua franca in Norway while they are learning Norwegian, as many Norwegians also have English in their repertoires. However, the ways these refugees have learnt English differ starkly from the ways most Norwegians have learnt English. While most Norwegians have mainly learnt English formally, i.e. in school, these Congolese refugees have mainly learnt English informally, i.e. outside language classrooms. The present article explores specific examples of how these refugees have learnt English. Some have, for example, learnt English through lingua franca interaction with other refugees with whom they do not share any other languages than English; others have initiated English language awareness in the wild themselves through, for example, talking explicitly about the English language with motorcycle riders in Uganda; and others have listened to English-speaking radio programmes in order to learn English faster. I argue that many of these ways of learning English informally can be referred to as “grassroots learning” of English, since English learning is initiated by the refugees themselves. These findings from empirical research among newly-arrived Congolese refugees in Norway may contribute to developing our understandings of informal English language learning, as well as making sure forced migrants’ voices are heard.
