Purpose Persistent financing frictions among small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) remain a structural constraint in emerging and transitional economies. Regulatory sandboxes have emerged as institutional innovations designed to promote financial technology experimentation while managing risk. This study aims to examine whether regulatory sandboxes alleviate SME financial constraints. Design/methodology/approach Exploiting the implementation of China’s FinTech Innovation Regulatory Pilot across cities, this study adopts a quasi-natural experimental framework using firm-level panel data from 2017 to 2023. A two-way fixed effects difference-in-differences model is used to estimate the baseline effect, complemented by a dynamic event-study specification and the Callaway-Sant’Anna estimator to strengthen causal identification. Findings Sandbox exposure significantly reduces SME financial constraints, with effects emerging gradually after implementation. The authors’ provide suggestive evidence on four potential mechanisms: FinTech innovation, the development of FinTech firms, trade credit availability and transaction cost reduction. The impact is stronger among non-manufacturing firms and in financially developed regions, indicating that regulatory innovation complements existing information structures and financial infrastructure in shaping development outcomes. Originality/value The study provides causal evidence that regulatory experimentation can influence real-sector financing outcomes. By linking sandbox policies to SME credit access, it contributes to understanding how adaptive regulation supports inclusive development in emerging economies.
Purpose This study aims to dissect the factors contributing to rural economic development from the sustainable endogenous development perspective. Design/methodology/approach This research leverages integration of the econometric modeling and machine learning methodologies (Ordered Probit model and Random Forest model) to uncover the factors’ marginal effect, relative contribution and dynamic process, employing 420 farm households data in Guizhou Province, China. Findings The findings highlight village leadership, social capital, collective action and collective property rights system reform as significant facilitators of rural economic development. The reform of the rural collective property rights system exerts a paramount relative contribution to rural economic development, followed by social capital, collective action and village leadership. The impacts of collective action, social capital and leadership on rural economic development reveal a pattern of oscillatory rise, eventually stabilizing. Originality/value This research contributes to a nuanced understanding of rural economic development and offers insights into the strategic prioritization of policy formulation to achieve sustainable development in rural communities.
Purpose This study aims to investigate the sociological forces driving the adoption of digital tax stamps (DTS) by examining how institutional pressures shape adoption decisions. While past work has highlighted technological and individual determinants of e-tax initiatives, this research draws on institutional theory to understand why firms implement digital tax administration. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted a cross-sectional survey of managers across a representative sample of manufacturing firms in Uganda. Hypotheses were evaluated using structural equation modeling (SEM) to assess whether there exists a relationship between institutional isomorphism and DTS adoption. Findings This study’s findings demonstrate that isomorphic pressures exert a strong, positive influence on DTS adoption. These results suggest that in regulatory contexts where compliance is mandatory, external imperatives compel firms to adopt DTS. Originality/value By providing empirical evidence of the importance of institutional isomorphism in driving DTS adoption, this work advances our understanding of digital tax administration and underscores the importance of the need to firms to comply with regulatory requirements to foster meaningful compliance.
Purpose This paper aims to empirically investigate how a country’s risk factors, including environmental, social and governance (ESG) risk and sovereign risks, influence the earnings volatility of banks in 19 emerging European countries between 2000 and 2023. Design/methodology/approach The study applied Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) to address heteroskedasticity and cross-sectional dependence. An IV-GMM model was then used to correct for error correlation and handle endogeneity and other flexible error structures. In addition, the Systems Quantile Regression model was used to examine the relationship between earnings volatility (EVOL) and independent variables across various quantiles, offering deeper insights into heteroscedasticity. Findings The study finds an asymmetric effect of the impact of sovereign risk revisions on the financial performance of Emerging Europe banks was found. In fact, while such revisions generally do not have a significant effect, they may have a notable impact under certain conditions or in specific subgroups, such as EU candidate countries. This suggests that upgrades and downgrades might influence financial performance differently, or their effects may vary depending on regional or bank-specific industrial variables. Practical implications Emerging European countries should adopt sophisticated risk management frameworks that integrate sovereign and ESG risks. ESG factors should be included in financial risk assessments, and governments should focus on improving condition of a sovereign’s environmental sustainability, the resilience of their social systems and the effectiveness of their governance. Originality/value This research offers a comprehensive analysis of sovereign and ESG risks on earnings volatility in emerging European banks, highlighting asymmetric effects of sovereign risk revisions and providing policy insights to strengthen financial stability and resilience.
Purpose Child stunting remains a critical development concern in rural areas where improvements in household welfare do not always translate into proportional gains in child growth outcomes. This study aims to explore how Economic level, Children’s diet and Environmental condition are associated with nutritional and physical dimensions of child stunting in rural communities of Malang Regency, Indonesia. Design/methodology/approach The analysis uses cross-sectional primary survey data collected from 150 mothers with children under five years of age. A threshold spline regression approach within a Bayesian estimation framework is applied to explore possible nonlinear relationships. Findings The results indicate that the strength of association between household conditions and child stunting varies across different levels of adequacy. Economic level shows stronger associations with nutritional outcomes beyond a threshold point, while the relationship with physical growth becomes more moderate. Children’s diet demonstrates relatively stable associations with nutritional indicators, whereas Environmental condition shows heterogeneous patterns across different segments of adequacy. Research limitations/implications The study is based on data from rural communities within one regency and therefore does not aim to establish causal relationships or broadly generalizable conclusions. Practical implications Identifying locally specific nonlinear patterns may support more targeted rural development interventions focusing on vulnerable households. Social implications Improving nutrition-related household conditions may contribute to enhanced child well-being and long-term human capital formation. Originality/value The study contributes by illustrating how threshold-based nonlinear analysis can be used to explore variations in known determinants of child stunting within a local development context.
Purpose Rapid changes in diet, physical activity and food systems have contributed to rising obesity in developing countries. As national incomes increase, obesity often shifts from higher to lower socioeconomic groups, a process known as the obesity transition. Small Island Developing States (SIDSs) face particular risks because of limited health system capacity, geographic isolation and dependence on imported foods. This study aims to examine female obesity patterns across six SIDSs to identify their position within the obesity transition. Design/methodology/approach The analysis uses nationally representative data from Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys for Fiji, Haiti, the Maldives, Samoa, Timor Leste and Vanuatu. Female obesity prevalence was assessed across age and wealth groups. Predicted margins were estimated to examine socioeconomic gradients in obesity and to classify each country’s stage of the obesity transition. Findings Substantial heterogeneity exists across countries. Haiti, Samoa, Timor Leste and Vanuatu exhibit early transition patterns, with obesity concentrated among women of higher socioeconomic status. Fiji shows a weakening positive gradient, suggesting movement between Stages 2 and 3. The Maldives demonstrates characteristics of a later transition stage, where obesity is increasing more rapidly among lower socioeconomic groups, indicating emerging health inequalities. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study offers one of the first cross-country assessments of obesity transition stages in SIDSs using harmonized survey data, providing evidence to support stage-specific and equity-focused obesity prevention strategies.
Purpose This paper aims to examine whether participation in global value chains (GVCs) promotes firm-level innovation in South Africa. Despite being one of the most industrialized economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Africa exhibits persistently low innovation outcomes. Drawing on theories of learning and knowledge spillovers, this study assesses whether firms’ engagement in exporting, importing intermediate inputs and two-way trade linkages is associated with higher innovation propensities, and whether these effects depend on firms’ absorptive capacity. Design/methodology/approach The analysis uses firm-level data from the 2020 World Bank Enterprise Survey for South Africa. Innovation is measured through indicators of product and process innovation. GVC participation is captured using alternative trade-based measures. To address endogeneity arising from self-selection and reverse causality, this study uses an instrumental variables (2SLS) approach, complemented by extended probit estimations and propensity score matching. All specifications control for firm characteristics and include industry and regional fixed effects. Findings The results show that participation in global value chains significantly increases the likelihood of firm innovation. This relationship remains robust after accounting for endogeneity and selection bias. The innovation effects of GVC participation are heterogeneous and are stronger for firms with higher absorptive capacity, proxied by firm size, engagement in research and development and foreign ownership. The findings indicate that while GVC participation can facilitate learning and innovation, its benefits are conditional on complementary firm-level capabilities. Originality/value This study provides novel causal evidence on the GVC–innovation nexus in South Africa, a context that remains underexplored in the literature. By explicitly addressing endogeneity and firm heterogeneity, it refines GVC-based theories of innovation and offers policy-relevant insights for leveraging global integration to support innovation in emerging economies.
Purpose This study aims to examine the pivotal role of banking sector development (BSD) in shaping innovation performance across Asian economies. Design/methodology/approach The analysis uses panel data from Asian economies spanning the period from 2000 to 2024. Key innovation indicators include research and development (R&D) expenditure intensity and the number of trademark applications. Advanced econometric techniques, i.e. system generalized method of moments, robust least squares and panel Granger causality models, are used to ensure robust empirical assessment. Findings The results indicate a positive and statistically significant relationship between BSD and innovation performance. Economic growth and remittance inflows also enhance innovation, whereas foreign direct investment inflows, inflation and real interest rates exert negative effects. The findings suggest that the banking sector plays a pivotal “grease the wheel” role in promoting innovation. Practical implications Policymakers are advised to increase the share of bank lending dedicated to R&D and innovation-focused activities to bolster economic progress and global competitiveness. Originality/value This research offers novel empirical insights into the BSD–innovation nexus within the Asian context. It contributes to the literature by highlighting how financial sector dynamics shape innovation outcomes in developing and emerging economies.
Purpose This paper aims to examine two conceptual frameworks, which address the relationship between governance and development. The first is the World Bank’s concept of “good governance,” and the second is the Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Center’s concept of “humane governance.” Design/methodology/approach This paper uses the comparative method for a systemic comparison of the two conceptual models because of their definitions of “development,” “governance” and “quality of governance.” The question of how governance quality contributes to socio-economic development is the main question for this study, and the answers of the two models to this question are examined based on a systemic comparison of the two models because of three criteria: comprehensiveness, normative coherence and measurement capability. Findings The systemic comparison shows that the model of humane governance has greater explanatory power than the good governance model because of two reasons: its wider definitions of development and governance and its usage of the idea of human development to redefine the governance quality. Therefore, the humane governance model is recommended as a new basis for designing development policy. Originality/value The parer shows that: since the conceptual model of humane governance applies the broader concept of development (the enlargement of people’s choices) and the wider concept of governance quality (the political, economic, and civic dimensions of good governance) it addresses contribution of governance quality to development better than the good governance model. This greater explanatory power opens up a new chapter of thinking about the impact of governance quality on development.
Purpose This study is motivated by the consistent underestimate of structural importance, portraying informality as a temporary deviation from formal development pathways. This study aims to investigate the push and pull factors that sustain and strengthen Ghana’s informal economy. Design/methodology/approach Anchored on the structuralist and institutionalist theoretical perspectives, the study utilised policy documents and peer-reviewed academic articles published in leading international journals as data sources through a systematic review. Findings The findings reveal that the persistence of informality is driven by a complex interplay of economic, social and institutional weaknesses that are mutually reinforcing. Consequently, regulatory reform, expanded social protection and targeted skills development emerge as critical strategies for strengthening the informal economy. Research limitations/implications The evidence further underscores the need for a deliberate shift away from ad hoc, top-down policy interventions towards inclusive reforms that address the structural foundations of informality. Originality/value The originality of this study lies in its contextualised analysis of both the drivers of informality and the strategies required to enhance its developmental potential.
Purpose The main goal of this article is to develop, validate and empirically test a model of digitally mediated human resources management (HRM) knowledge transfer effectiveness from HQs to foreign subsidiaries in multinational companies (MNCs), with particular attention to the role of transfer-related capabilities and transfer mechanisms in shaping HRM outcomes and financial performance results. This study also aims to demonstrate how the development of transfer-related capabilities at the HQs and subsidiary levels, together with digitally mediated transfer mechanisms, contributes to effective knowledge transfer and its subsequent HRM and financial outcomes in MNCs. Design/methodology/approach The empirical research used a quantitative approach, using survey data via computer-aided telephone interview from 100 MNCs and their 200 foreign subsidiaries. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was applied to validate the proposed model. The study is conducted in the context of MNCs headquartered in Central Europe, a region characterized by the coexistence of diverse coordination logics and organizational legacies, which creates specific challenges for cross-border HRM knowledge transfer. Findings The findings confirm that HQ’s knowledge transfer capability, FS’s absorptive capacity and ICT-based mechanisms significantly shape knowledge transfer effectiveness, HRM outcomes and financial performance. The model shows high explanatory power (R2 = 0.80). The strongest effects occur between HRM knowledge transfer goals and effectiveness (β = 0.97–0.98), while cloud-based repositories and structured documentation exhibit the most substantial ICT effects, followed by effectiveness–HRM outcomes (β = 0.62) and HRM outcomes–financial performance (β = 0.57). Originality/value The study develops and empirically validates an integrated model of digitally mediated HRM knowledge transfer in MNCs, combining HQs’ transfer capabilities, subsidiaries’ absorptive capacities and ICT-based transfer mechanisms within a single analytical framework. By linking these mechanisms to HRM outcomes, organizational development processes and company financial performance, the study extends existing research on knowledge transfer and international HRM.
PurposeThis study aims to explore the interplay between corruption, information and communication technology (ICT) and bilateral trade flows in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), distinguishing between oil and non-oil exporters. It examines whether ICT amplifies governance benefits on the bilateral trade and reduces transaction costs under weak institutions. Design/methodology/approachAn augmented gravity model is estimated using Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood (PPML) to account for zero trade flows and heteroskedasticity. The model tests direct and interactive effects of corruption and ICT, using a MENA panel data set and addressing endogeneity and unobserved heterogeneity. FindingsCorruption significantly depresses bilateral trade, with stronger effects among oil exporters. ICT has mixed direct effects, sometimes hindering trade in non-oil economies but supporting oil–non-oil linkages. Interaction terms show ICT enhances the trade-promoting role of corruption control, especially on the exporter side. Coordinated ICT–governance strategies are vital. Practical implicationsPolicies should combine anti-corruption reforms with ICT-based trade facilitation, such as blockchain and e-government tools. Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is among the first region-specific analyses of the corruption–ICT–trade nexus in MENA, highlighting oil versus non-oil asymmetries and exporter/importer differences.
PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the impact of inward foreign direct investment (IFDI) on employment generation in India, addressing a gap in existing research despite recent improvements in labour market indicators highlighted by the Indian Employment Report (2024). Design/methodology/approachThis research uses annual time-series data from 1991 to 2016 and applies the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model to analyse both the short- and long-run dynamics between IFDI and employment in India. FindingsThe results of this study indicate that IFDI has a statistically significant and positive impact on employment, suggesting that foreign investment not only contributes to economic growth but also leads to job creation by crowding in employment opportunities. Research limitations/implicationsOne key limitation of this study is the unavailability of consistent and reliable data beyond 2016. Additionally, this study focuses on national-level aggregates and does not account for sectoral or regional variations in FDI impact. Future research could benefit from disaggregated data for a better understanding. Social implicationsBy identifying a positive link between IFDI and employment, this study underscores FDI’s potential to contribute to social stability through job creation. This is especially relevant in a country like India, where employment generation remains a key development challenge. Originality/valueThis study adds to the limited empirical literature on the employment effects of IFDI in India by focusing on long-term macroeconomic data and using the ARDL framework. This study provides new insights into how the quality and nature of FDI influence labour market outcomes, a dimension often overlooked in previous research.
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze the economic landscape of North African countries during the Arab Spring through the lens of polarization, offering an alternative perspective to traditional inequality measures. While conventional indices suggest stable or declining inequality in Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt, polarization metrics reveal a deepening socioeconomic divide. Using the Forster–Wolfson Index, the Duclos–Esteban–Ray Index and the relative distribution method, this study highlights increasing polarization, particularly at the lower tail of the distribution. The findings suggest that economic bifurcation, rather than inequality per se, played a crucial role in fueling social unrest during the Arab Spring. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses advanced polarization metrics – the Forster–Wolfson Index, Duclos–Esteban–Ray Index and relative distribution method – to analyze household consumption data from Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt. Using national household surveys, this study reconstructs Tunisia’s 2015 consumption distribution from grouped data via parametric imputation. The relative distribution method decomposes changes into location and shape effects, revealing polarization trends. The analysis spans two decades, focusing on subperiods to track distributional shifts. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of economic bifurcation, challenging traditional inequality measures and offering new insights into the socioeconomic drivers of the Arab Spring. Findings This study reveals a significant rise in polarization, particularly in the lower tail of the consumption distribution, across Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt. While traditional inequality indices (e.g. Gini) suggest stability, polarization metrics indicate a deepening socioeconomic divide, with households increasingly clustering at the extremes. This economic bifurcation, characterized by “downgrading” in the lower tail and modest “upgrading” in the upper tail, likely fueled social unrest during the Arab Spring. The findings challenge the narrative of stable inequality, highlighting polarization as a critical factor in understanding the socioeconomic tensions that contributed to the region’s political upheaval. Originality/value This paper offers a novel perspective by shifting the focus from traditional inequality measures to polarization, providing a deeper understanding of the socioeconomic dynamics in North Africa during the Arab Spring. By using advanced polarization metrics and introducing an innovative methodology to reconstruct consumption distribution from grouped data, this study uncovers significant economic bifurcation that traditional indices overlook. The findings challenge the prevailing narrative of stable inequality, emphasizing polarization as a key driver of social unrest. This contribution enriches the literature on inequality and social movements, offering policymakers new insights into the economic underpinnings of political instability in the Middle East and North Africa region.
Purpose This paper aims to investigate the moderating role of education on the financial inclusion-food poverty nexus: the case of Uganda. Design/methodology/approach Using data from the Uganda National Household Survey 2019 / 2020, this study uses a binary Logit model to examine the impact of three dimensions of financial inclusion, namely, ownership of a savings account, access to credit and a financial inclusion index on food poverty, with emphasis on the interaction between education and financial inclusion. Findings The study finds that both financial inclusion and education significantly reduce food poverty, with education enhancing the effectiveness of financial inclusion in this regard. The interaction between financial inclusion measures and education is statistically significant, highlighting education’s role in improving the utilisation of financial services to alleviate food poverty. Originality/value While financial inclusion’s role in reducing poverty and improving economic well-being has been studied, the moderating role of education remains underexplored. This paper addresses this gap by analysing how education interacts with financial inclusion to jointly influence food poverty, focusing on education as a moderator in the financial inclusion – food poverty relationship.
Purpose This study aims to investigate the impact of terrorism on domestic investment in Pakistan during the first two decades of the 21st century. This study pays special attention to the interaction between violence, governance and economic freedom to isolate the institutional consequences of terrorism. Design/methodology/approach An autoregressive distributed lag model with error-correction is used. Findings The empirical conclusions are twofold. First, terrorism has an adverse but indirect effect on domestic capital formation. This adverse effect is particularly pronounced in the short run. Second, the indirect effects of terrorism are transmitted through institutional channels only. In other words, the negative influence terrorism exerts on capital formation is solely dependent on its harmful impact on governance institutions. There is no evidence of non-institutional transmission mechanisms. Originality/value Literature so far has focused mostly on physical destruction and loss of life associated with violent conflict. This paper sheds light on the institutional impact, which is oft ignored but significantly more consequential.
Purpose This study aims to analyze the impact of financial development (FD) on consumption. The authors investigate the individual effects of the development of financial institutions (FI) and financial markets (FM) on consumption, since they can have different impacts. Finally, the authors analyze the effects of the depth, access and efficiency of FI and FM on consumption. Design/methodology/approach The authors use FD indicators obtained from the International Monetary Fund, which provide us with standardized metrics for this assessment, and a sample that includes 100 countries, with annual observations in the period from 1991 to 2019, enabling the exploration of international evidence for a wide range of countries. The authors conducted analyses for the pre and post subprime crisis periods and for subsamples according to the level of development of the countries (developed and developing countries). Besides fixed effects ordinary least squares estimates, the models are also estimated by system-generalized method of moments. Findings The results indicate that FD has a positive impact on consumption in four different scenarios and the development of FI is the most relevant, especially after the subprime crisis. Access to and depth of institutions are particularly important for developing countries in the post-subprime crisis period. Originality/value The impacts of FD on consumption are not consensual, and the studies conducted are mostly individual analyses of countries. In addition, the findings of existing studies are difficult to compare, as they are obtained by different approaches and are not based on standardized indicators. Our study seeks to contribute to the literature with a comprehensive international analysis and an approach that allows comparing the different aspects of FD, both for institutions and markets, in different contexts and level of economic development of countries.
Purpose Women empowerment (WEN) and green entrepreneurship (GEP) are two essential concepts for societal development. This paper aims to examine the effect of green entrepreneurial skills (GESS), green opportunities (GOS) and green incentives (GIS) on WEN and GEP in a developing economy. Design/methodology/approach The study was based on quantitative cross-sectional data collected from women green entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia. It used 314 valid cases to obtain results. Findings Using the structural equation model, the results demonstrate that GESS has a positive effect on WEN but a negative effect on GEP. GOS has a positive effect on both WEN and GEP. GIS’s impact on WEN is negative and positive on GEP. Moreover, GEP has a positive effect on WEN. Finally, GEP does not support the development of an association between GESS, GOSS and WEN, but it contributes to creating a positive connection between GIS and WEN. Practical implications The study’s outcomes assist policymakers and planners in designing strategies for equipping women with GEP skills to bring their empowerment. Moreover, policymakers grasp the need for interventions that address women-specific barriers, promote equitable access to GOS and identify how incentive structures support rather than hinder women’s participation in the green economy. Originality/value The study offers an integrated framework that integrates GESS, GOS, GIS, GEP and WEN in a single framework, along with direct and indirect paths in the Saudi Arabian women entrepreneurs’ context.
Purpose Digital restrictions and the institutional quality governing the economy might pose substantial implications for digital services trade. This study aims to examine the relationship between digital trade restrictions and institutional quality with digitally delivered services trade. Design/methodology/approach Using panel data from 84 countries spanning 2014–2022, the analysis combines descriptive analysis with empirical econometric estimations. This study uses digitally delivered services trade as the response variable, while the digital services trade restrictiveness index and control of corruption and government effectiveness are the variables of interest. Findings The empirical findings reveal a significant and negative relationship between digital services trade and digital restrictions. Conversely, control of corruption and government effectiveness are significantly positively associated with digital services trade. Practical implications A balanced digital trade policy needs conditional restrictions to establish trust while enabling secure cross-border flows. Countries with weaker institutions may benefit from capacity-building initiatives to enhance bureaucratic digital skills and strengthen institutional oversight. Streamlining trade procedures, reducing regulatory complexity and enforcing control of corruption could further facilitate digital trade. Originality/value While previous research has studied digital restriction in the digital economy, few studies explore the link between digital services trade restrictiveness and digitally delivered services trade. This study enriches the literature on this topic and incorporates institutional quality indicators, control of corruption and government effectiveness to provide new insights into regulatory impacts on digital trade.
Purpose This study aims to investigate the market reaction in the cyclical consumer sector to the US–Houthi conflict. Furthermore, the authors explore the impact of this conflict on market reactions by market and region. Design/methodology/approach Using an event study methodology, this paper analyze a sample of 1,973 companies. This paper used multiple event windows, including a 15-day period before the invasion announcement as the preinvasion event and a 15-day period after the invasion announcement as the postinvasion event. Findings The authors find that pre the event of war, the market tended to show a positive reaction, but toward the event day until post event, the market in the consumer cyclical sector actually reacted significantly negatively to the conflict, especially in developed and developing markets. The Asia and Pacific market is the market that feels the most negative impact from the US–Houthi conflict compared to other markets. Furthermore, in terms of industry types in the consumer staples sector, Food and Tobacco and Personal and Household Products and Services felt the negative impact, although the majority of all industries reacted significantly negatively. Originality/value This study focuses on the US–Houthi conflict, an event that has not been extensively studied in the context of market reactions. Unlike previous research, this study specifically examines the impact of the conflict on the consumer cyclical sector, emphasizing the significance of trade route disruptions, particularly the Suez Canal, on global markets. By providing insights into how such geopolitical events affect different regions and industries, this study offers valuable guidance for policymakers and managers in mitigating the adverse effects of geopolitical risks on market stability.
