Equine welfare is a complex topic that relies on the physical, nutritional, social, and psychological needs of horses, and all of these are directly influenced by the daily management practices applied. The current study examines the effects of housing, feeding, and management approaches on the welfare of horses in general, drawing on recent scientific literature, welfare assessment models, and evidence from equine science. The design of stables, ventilation, bedding, turnout schedules, and opportunities to exercise natural behaviours are all features of housing conditions that greatly influence stress levels, locomotor patterns, and the incidence of musculoskeletal or respiratory problems. All of them, such as digestive health, metabolic balance, and stereotype development, are significantly affected by feeding methods, including fodder availability, feeding frequency, diet balance, and the extent to which these methods align with natural grazing behaviour. This question is based on the Five Domains Model and the concept of animal-centred care. It is holistic in its investigation of how the three fundamental areas of management relate to equine well-being outcomes. The study's findings demonstrate that management techniques that encourage natural behaviour, ensure access to fibre-rich forage at all times, reduce social isolation, and employ low-stress handling methods have a dramatic impact on welfare outcomes. On the other hand, keeping an animal in a small space, feeding it a diet high in concentrates, and treating it unpleasantly are all factors that may increase the likelihood of the animal developing behavioural disorders, physiological stress, and health issues. The study indicates that management conducive to animal welfare requires evidence-based, integrated tactics that prioritise behavioural needs, nutritional balance, and the establishment of healthy interactions between humans and horses. The recommendations emphasise the utility of welfare assessment methods, the enhancement of caretaker training, and the introduction of management changes in equine institutions to enable humane and sustainable care for horses.
Hoof health is a crucial part of overall horse health and directly impacts mobility, performance, and lifespan. Lameness is common and expensive in horses and is often closely associated with poor foot care, such as failure to trim, shoe, and maintain the hooves. In this work, the relationship between hoof treatment practices and lameness incidence is examined, underscoring that under-care may result in structural disruptions, infections, and musculoskeletal strains. Basing the analysis on clinical observations, veterinary logs, and existing literature, the study identifies such critically important parameters as frequency of trimming, quality of farriery, ambient conditions, and nutritional support that can have a significant impact on the integrity of the hoof. Overall research indicate that active and regular hoof care not only reduces lameness but also enhances performance, reduces veterinary costs, and improves welfare outcomes. The paper highlights the importance of integrating organised hoof-care services into equine management systems and the need to train caretakers and owners in evidence-based farriery practices. Future study recommendations include longitudinal studies to establish the immediate effects of some hoof care interventions on the Prevalence and severity of lameness. In general, this paper has shed light on the fact that careful attention to hoof care is a critical component of lameness prevention and overall health and performance of horses in diverse fields of discipline.
The increasing effects of environmental change on the equine population, such as global warming, climatic changes and deteriorating air quality, have been faced in a greater proportion. This paper looks at the interaction between variables related to climate change, including heat stress, changed precipitation cycles, and extreme weather, and air pollutants, including particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxides and wildfire smoke, to affect equine health, welfare and performance. Based on an extensive review of veterinary science, environmental health and equine management literature, the paper examines the physiological, respiratory, metabolic, and behavioral consequences of ecological stresses experienced by horses. It has been shown that high temperatures and humidity exacerbate the thermoregulatory load, resulting in dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, reduced athletic capacity, and a predisposition to heat-related infections. The paper also describes how climate-related alterations in pasture quality, vector ecology, and pathogen survival are modifying the dynamics of equine diseases, increasing the incidence of parasitic infections, vector-borne diseases, and plant toxicities. Moreover, protracted droughts and intense rainfall also affect the availability of fodder, water quality, and stable conditions, thereby increasing the risk of gastrointestinal diseases and poor welfare. Exposure to wildfire smoke has become a major seasonal issue in most locations, particularly affecting performance horses and individuals with underlying respiratory conditions, especially those who are young or elderly. The results underscore the need to implement environmental risk assessment in veterinary and equestrian management practices. Finally, this study demonstrates that climate change and deteriorating air quality are the primary drivers of complex risks to equine well-being and require policy intervention, evidence-based management, and joint action by veterinarians, researchers, and horse owners to ensure the long-term health and well-being of the equine population.
Diet is an essential factor in shaping the performance of the equine, its health, and welfare. This paper examines the multidimensional effects of dietary management in horses, with particular attention to the association between nutrient intake and physiological, behavioural, and metabolic outcomes. An appropriate diet is necessary because it supports energy metabolism, muscle growth, and stamina, which are essential for the performance of both athletic and working horses. Moreover, balanced meals have benefits: they are likely not only to positively affect the immune system but also to improve intestinal health, thereby reducing the risk of certain metabolic diseases that directly affect the duration and quality of life. The study examines the effects of macronutrients, micronutrients, and feeding habits, and how deficiencies or imbalances may contribute to poor performance, disease susceptibility, and behavioural challenges. The study presents the necessity of specialised feeding plans based on a horse's age, workload, and physiological state. It draws on findings from existing research, case-study observations, and field practices. The findings show that planned nutritional interventions not only enhance physical performance but also promote mental health, decrease stress, and promote recovery. This comprehensive guide to equine nutrition offers practical advice for veterinarians, trainers, and horse owners to maximise health measures, improve performance indices, and provide environmentally sustainable welfare. The study proposes that, to ensure optimal performance and long-term health and well-being of equine populations, evidence-based nutritional solutions are needed.
This study was conducted to clarify the behavioral dynamics of the equine larynx during exertion and rest under the influence of different bits, and to ascertain potential variations in the overall surface area of the larynx among bits within individual horses. Various researchers highlight the impact of bits on equine breathing and upper airway disorders. While some attribute respiratory discomfort solely to bit use, others suggest negative effects in combination with rein tension. Riding without a bit has been associated with improved animal welfare and reduced hyperreactive behaviors. The extreme sensitivity of the mouth to mechanical stimulation makes the bit a potential source of discomfort, leading to resistance, lesions, and injury. Poll flexion induced by rein tension and bit use can obstruct the airway, causing hy-poxia and decreased performance. This investigation focused on three bits commonly used in international grand prix showjumping events in Europe during 2022: the loose ring bit, the three-ring bit, and the Pelham snaffle. Employing overground endoscopy, this research observed nine Warmblood horses engaging in walking, trotting, and cantering with different bits. An overground endoscope facilitated the examination of laryngeal behavior during motion. Statistical analyses revealed that the chosen bits did not significantly influence laryngeal behavior during different gaits. Similarly, there was no substantial variation in laryngeal surface area among bits within individual horses. However, a significant main effect of state (rest, trot, canter) highlighted the considerable influence of the horse's physiological state on laryngeal behavior.
The aim of this study was to compare cytological results and tentative diagnoses within and between different laboratories to assess the reliability of cytological examination of TBS and BAL as a diagnostic tool for equine asthma. The hypotheses of this study were that, in an intra- and inter-individual comparison of cytological results from TBS and BAL within and between multiple laboratories, there would be little to no variance in the results and tentative diagnoses, and that cytology could be used as a reliable criterion for respiratory tract diagnostics. The study population consisted of 15 horses presented for evaluation of respiratory signs. Initially, the anamnesis was taken, respiratory tract examinations were performed on all horses, and the findings from the clinical, endoscopic, and cytological examinations and the anamnesis were used for the final diagnosis in the clinic. This allowed the categorization of the study horses into five healthy horses, five horses with mild to moderate equine asthma, and five horses with severe equine asthma. Different air-dried smears of the same TBS- and BAL-samples from the study horses were then sent to four external laboratories and were additionally evaluated by two examiners from the equine clinic. Each labora-tory and examiner analyzed the samples of the same horse twice in a double-blind manner. The results from the external laboratories showed marked differences in the cytological evaluation of TBS and BAL. Some laboratories provided semi-quantitative data, while others provided percentage values for differential cell counts. To allow for inter-individual comparison of the results from different laboratories, a standardized scoring system for cytological assessment of TBS and BAL was developed. When comparing the intra-individual agreement of results within the external laboratories and examiners from the clinic, it was confirmed that there was good agreement in the results for the number of neutrophil granulocytes in BAL and TBS among most laboratories (ICC > 0,75, weighted kappa > 0,6). Moreover, laboratories that provided percentage values for differential cell counts also showed good agreement for the number of macrophages, lymphocytes, eosinophilic granulocytes, and mast cells. The semi-quantitative data yielded less reproducibility of results for the cell types of differential cell counts among different labo-ratories. When comparing results between all laboratories, good reproducibility was also achieved for the number of neutrophil granulocytes in BAL and TBS (Krippendorff's alpha > 0,7). The results for all other cell types of differential cell counts varied more between the laboratories. Healthy horses were frequently diagnosed with mild to moderate equine asthma by the external laboratories. In horses with respiratory disor-ders, equine asthma was mostly diagnosed, although the severity of the disease varied between and within the laboratories. One laboratory additionally diagnosed bacterial bronchitis in some horses. The hypothesis that TBS and BAL cytology can be used as a reliable criterion for respiratory tract diagnostics and that it plays an important role in the diagnosis needs to be restricted due to some intra- and inter-individual differences in cytological results and variations in tentative diagnoses between and within the laboratories. Therefore, it can be concluded that cytological examination should only be used as a small part of the final diagnosis, and the anamnesis, clinical signs and findings of endoscopy should have the greatest influence on the diagnosis and subsequent therapy. Without detailed information on clinical signs and medical history, valid cytological diagnoses are limited. The combination of all findings should serve as the gold standard for diagnosis. As a recommendation, the same laboratory should always be used for cytological evaluation, especially in follow-up examinations, to obtain valid cytological results. Additionally, there is a need for a standardized cytological assessment of TBS and BAL to enable comparison of results between different lab-oratories. The scoring system developed in this study can serve as a suggestion for a more standardized evaluation
The conditions of liability of the seller to the horse on the one hand and those of the veterinarian carrying out the purchase examination on the other are different in principle. Therefore, there is no general joint and several liability of the seller and the vet. The essential difference lies in the fact that, according to the prerequisites, not every finding to be recognised and documented by the veterinarian constitutes a defect in the legal sense. This difference is cancelled out if a contractual link is established between the purchase contract and the purchase inspection contract. This arises when the result of the purchase examination becomes the content of a health quality agreement. Joint and several liability has the advantage that the vet can take recourse in the internal relationship. A formal exclusion of liability to the detriment of the client is inadmissible in the case of the purchase examination
The purpose of this review was to introduce inhalation therapy as a suitable method for the consumption of medications in the therapeutic of equine respiratory diseases. Respiratory diseases can reduce the equine's athletic activities and lead to complications and deaths. Therefore, quick identification of respiratory disease and choosing the appropriate treatment method such as inhalation therapy should be prioritized. Inhalation therapy is a route for delivery drugs directly to the airways. The amount of drug deposition in the lung determines the effectiveness of inhalation therapy and pulmonary drug deposition in turn, depends on the size of produced particles. Inhalation therapy has some advantages like the direct delivery of the drug to the intended site of action, the use of a low dose of drug, lower side effects compared to parenteral administration and some disadvantages such as expense, frequency of drug administration and difficulty in determining the precise dose of a medication. Aerosol deployment within the pulmonary system is done under the influence of three main mechanisms of gravitational sedimentation, inertial impaction, Brownian diffusion. Three different types of commercially available inhalation drug delivery which is used in equine include dry powder inhalation, metered-dose inhalers, and nebulizers. Pharmacological agents used in equine inhalation therapy includes antimicrobials, glucocorticoids, mucolytic, bronchodilators and etc. In general, according to the points mentioned above, especially the existence of positive benefits, inhalation therapy in equine should be given more attention and prioritized in the treatment of respiratory diseases.
Predicting the influence of cardiac findings on the athletic development of a horse represents a delicate balance for clinicians. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of cardiac findings on the athletic trajectory of horses. Understanding these factors can enhance our knowledge of equine career longevity and success, offering valuable prognostic information for veterinarians and horse owners. The study analyses data from 450 Warmbloods sourced from the German Riding Association's (FN) database. All Horses had undergone both a general and a specific cardiac examination and were found in the database. The study examines associations between cardiac abnormalities and career outcomes. The study lacks a control group and must be interpreted with caution and primarily in relation to the study population. Results indicate that horses with cardiac dimensional changes are more likely to end their athletic careers around the time of diagnosis. Atrial fibrillation also correlates with setbacks in performance. Veterinarian prognostic assessments are notably accurate, especially for cases with less favourable prognoses. Additionally, the study explores the detailed consequences of cardiac dimensional changes on sports performance post-diagnosis, revealing a significant decline in athletic ability. Future research should consider additional factors such as weight, age, size, severity of valvular regurgitation and veterinary recommendation bias. Enhancing routine documentation in clinics can improve the precision of retrospective studies, and exploring international sports-related databases could provide further insights
Equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD) most notably affects Thoroughbred racehorses, with a prevalence of 80-100 %. Omepra-zole, the treatment of choice, has been extensively investigated in the past. However, the drug's withdrawal time is 9 days for racehorses in Germany, prohibiting its use before racing. Despite an emerging interest in vital mushrooms to treat gastric ulcers in humans, no studies have yet been published in horses. The aim of the current study was to compare an orally administered vital mushroom formulation with an orally administered buffered omeprazole powder paste formulation with regard to their impact on equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD) and equine glandulargastric disease (EGGD). After clinical and gastroscopic examination, 22 Thoroughbred young racehorses (mean +/- SD age 25.7 +/- 1.46 months) with lesions of the squamous and/or glandular mucosa were assigned to one of two groups. Horses received either vital mushrooms orally (CME Gastric Control Gold, CME Horses GmbH, M & uuml;nster, Germany; n = 10 horses) at a dosage of 30 grams/horse for 28 days or buffered paste omeprazole orally (GastroGard (R), Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany; n = 12 horses) at an initial dosage of 4 mg/kg bwt for 7 days and a cost limiting prophylactic dose of 1 mg/kg bwt for the subsequent 21 days per os once daily. After completion of the 28-day treatment duration, gastric examinations were repeated to determine lesion status. While ESGD was detected in 21 out of 22 horses, EGGD was less com-monly diagnosed in a total of 16 out of 22 horses. Median squamous lesion scores (plus 25th-75th percentiles) significantly improved in horses receiving omeprazole. At the beginning of the study the squamous greater curvature revealed a median score of 2 (1-3) and a median score of1 (0-3) after treatment on day 28 (p = 0.016). The squamous lesser curvature revealed a median score of 3 (2-3) at the beginning of the study and a median score of 2 (1-3) after treatment on day 28 (p = 0.011). No statistical significance was detected in the vital mushrooms group with a squamous greater curvature median score of 1 (0-1) at the beginning of the study and a median score of 1 (0-1) after 28 days. The squamouslesser curvature in this group revealed a median lesion score of 1 (1-2) at the beginning of the study and a median lesion score of 1 (0-2) after28 days of treatment. No statistically significant effects of either of the two treatments were observed in the fundus, antrum, and pylorus. This pilot study shows that the treatment of ESGD with vital mushrooms was inferior to treatment with omeprazole. However, gastroscopic findings did not deteriorate under treatment with vital mushrooms, which might propose their use as supplement before racing. However, due to the missing implementation of a negative control group, we cannot draw a conclusion about whether vital mushrooms supplementation reveals a difference when compared to no treatment. The small number of animals per group constitutes the main limitation of this study. For future trials, the severity of lesions should be balanced between both treatment groups as part of a randomized controlled study.
In human medicine it has already been observed that "cardiac fatigue" can occur after high intensity exercise. Diastolic dysfunction has already been detected in endurance horses after exercise. In eventing horses there is currently no information about myocardial function after cross-country exercise. The intent of the study was to use Pulsed-wave Tissue Doppler Imaging (PW-TDI) to assess myocardial function in eventing horses after intense exercise and over the competition season. For this purpose, 19 warmblood horses with an average age of eleven years were examined. Repeated echocardiographic examinations using PW-TDI were performed during one tournament season (March to September). The first echocardiographic examination was performed during the winter break before the season. Attention was paid to the cardiovascular system. Pathological findings such as heart valve insufficiency were excluded. The short axis of the left ventricle was visualized from the right side at the level of the chordae tendinae. The main focus was on the left ventricular free wall. An echocardiographic examination was carried out in the morning before the exercise, 30 minutes afterwards and 24 hours later. The influence of the individual factors on the measured values of the PW-TDI, for example the time of the examination and the month in which the examination took place, was then tested using mixed linear models. A total of 191 of 201 PW-TDI measurements were evaluable. After 30 minutes, diastolic and systolic variables showed significant differences from pre-exercise measurements. The maximum early diastolic myocardial velocity was significantly reduced. The maximum systolic myocardial velocity, however, was increased highly significant. The ratio of maximum early diastolic and late diastolic myocardial velocity was reduced highly significant after 30 minutes as well. 24 hours later, normalisation could be observed for almost all parameters. The maximum early diastolic myocardial velocity was still reduced highly significant after 24 hours. Over the season a significant increase in peak early diastolic myocardial velocity was observed. Significant increases were also observed in the systolic parameters. After exercise a reduced diastolic function was evident from diastolic parameters. On the one hand, this can be a result of changed blood volume as well as changed pre- and afterload after exercise, but it can also indicate signs of reduced diastolic function. For a definitive statement more information about hydration status and blood volume would have been necessary. The unchanged systolic parameters did not indicate cardiac fatigue. The increased plasma catecholamine concentration after exercise could be the reason for the increased systolic myocardial velocity. Return to baseline after 24 hours was mostly achieved. The maximum early diastolic myocardial velocity was still reduced so this could point out that the diastolic function wasn t completely recovered. The changes in the diastolic and systolic parameters over the season have already been observed in human trained athletes and suggest a training effect. In summary, it can be concluded that pulsed-wave tissue Doppler imaging (PW-TDI) has proven to be a suitable but also complex procedure in performance diagnostics for eventing horses. However, further studies are needed to be carried out to obtain further reference values.
Self-report measurement of fatigue and wellbeing is frequently used in various sports to assess adaptability to training alterations. The aim of this study was to describe how German elite riders in the discipline of eventing assess their own fitness as well as that of their horses for the entirety of an eventing season. Short online questionnaires were used to allow eight riders to describe the training of their horses. Five criteria (general performance, ability to concentrate, general state of mind, general muscular condition and emotional wellbeing) were used to assess their horse's, as well as their own wellbeing. A 1-10 rating scale was used to score each criterion resulting in an average of 38 out of 50 (maximum wellbeing). The horse score and the rider's score were linearly correlated above a score of 30 points. The horse score also positively correlated with its success at competitions. Horses which are regularly turned out for grazing received a higher horse score. It can be concluded that self-report measurement of fatigue and wellbeing can be a useful tool for trainers and riders to better determine the horse's fatigue and recovery
Pemoline, (RS)-2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3-oxazol-4(5H)-one, is a member of the 4-oxazolidinone group of substances and a central nervous system stimulant closely related structurally and pharmacologically to aminorex. With the increased sensitivity of equine drug testing, low concentration identifications of pemoline have increasingly been identified in horse racing. In 2009 two pemoline and one tetramisole identification in English racing were reported in horses administered levamisole, leading to suggestions that levamisole, known to metabolize to aminorex, could also metabolize to pemoline. In April 2016 the French, German, and South African horseracing laboratories reported frequent identifications of pemoline in equine urine samples, such that these laboratories had "in-house" reporting limits below which urinary pemoline identifications were not reported. In 2016 and again in 2018 the matter of potential pemoline identifications in Indiana horse racing was communicated by the Indiana Horse Racing Commission to Indiana horsemen, with requests that horsemen avoid use of levamisole. Soon thereafter, in late 2018, we became aware that plant barbarin was a potential source of equine urinary aminorex identifications. In Spring 2019 we therefore harvested flowering "Yellow Rocket" (Barbarea vulgaris), a barbarin-containing invasive plant widely distributed in North America and administered it orally to horses. Urine samples collected from these horses were found to contain aminorex. Aminorex, closely related chemically and pharmacologically to pemoline, is therefore a naturally occurring alkaloid that may be identified in equine urine, suggesting possible similar botanical origins for pemoline, now not infrequently being identified at low ng/mL concentrations in equine urine samples in Europe and elsewhere. Addressing the regulatory implications of these findings, we have therefore reviewed the pharmacological literature on pemoline in the horse and using the Toutain & Lassourd safety factor of 500 we now propose 2 ng/mL of pemoline as an Irrelevant Plasma Concentration (IPC) of pemoline in horses
Warmblood breeding is experiencing a situation with remarkable increase of expectations and demands with regard to conformation, move-ment, health, motivation and stamina of the horses. The breeding organizations are currently using the routine evaluations of young riding horses, broodmares and stallions to document the population level. Traits related to the breeding goals of modern riding horses are referred to in the monitoring, for which data are collected, for example, at events organized for studbook entry of mares, stallion selection for licensing or standardized performance tests. Foal shows are regularly organized by the studbooks as well. However, in the majority of cases data on the foals are currently not collected and used systematically. This implies an unused chance to get access to information providing early insight into the development of the population. The aim of this study was to collect and statistically analyze foal data on conformation, gaits, behav-ior and health, such that frequency and distribution statistics can serve as a basis to discuss options for future routines of studbooks. For our pilot study, we have assessed Hanoverian Warmblood foals born in 2015 and 2016 either at different public events or in their home stables. Conformation, gait and behavior data were collected by linear description using a standardized protocol. Additional information on incisor teeth, jaws and the umbilical region were made available through a short clinical examination. Findings from visual and palpatory assessment were gradually documented as were additional behavior data. Descriptive statistics on all parameters recorded were complemented by mul-tiple analyses of variance which allowed inferences on the role of sex, age, season and type of event for the distribution of the foal data. The data pool for the statistical analyses comprised information on 1 073 foals. Deviations from regular limb conformation had been found in up to 10 % of the foals. Deviation of carpus position referred to as over at knee was seen more frequently than toed-in or toed-out stance of the limbs, weak or upright pastern and hooves with high heels. Results of the linear description of the foals indicated mostly minor if any irregu-larities in the limbs. The frequency of remarks on changes in the umbilical region was remarkably higher from the visual inspection (umbilical thickening; 38.0 %) then from the palpatory examination (hernia opening; 10.7 %). Statistical comparison of visual and palpatory findings on the navel revealed a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.29. Deviations from normocclusion of incisor teeth had been documented from the clinical examination for about one third of the foals, with clearly higher quantity of overbite (31.6 %) than underbite (1.0 %). Analyses of variance showed significant influences of the age of the foals, the season and the type of the event on the distribution of overbite. The experiences and results of this pilot study imply that extension of the common foal assessments by several aspects of potential health relevance and by behavior traits should be feasible. Despite the additional efforts, an additional palpatory examination of the foals can be beneficial for strengthening the data basis supposed to be used as reference for management recommendations and possible breeding applications. Further investigation of the foal data with focus on the genetic background of observed conditions will show how the results from this pilot study may help to integrate new traits into the breeding program of the Hanoverian Warmblood.
The incidence of plant poisoning in horses seems to have increased, but there are only a few reports discussing this issue. This study was performed to assess the number of plant intoxications treated in an equine clinic in Germany between 2011 and 2020 and to relate them to weather conditions (temperature, sunshine duration, precipitation). The analysis included a Poisson count regression. Forty-two cases were included. Plant poisoning roughly doubled in hot and dry years 2018 (n = 8) and 2019 (n = 9) compared to previous years. An increase of the average annual temperature by 1 degrees C resulted in more than a doubling of intoxication cases relative to colic cases (IR 2.466, CI 1.52-4.98, p = 0.001). Longer sunshine duration resulted in a significant increase in cases (p = 0.013). Berteroaincana and Robiniapseudoacacia were the most common intoxicants. Climate change is a growing problem and leads to the overgrowth of plants that prefer warm and dry conditions, including poisonous plants, such as B.incana and Seneciojacobeae. If the grass on a pasture is scarce, horses eat plants that are normally unpalatable. Moreover, hay quality and its contamination with toxic plants might be an issue. Our hypothesis was confirmed as the number of plant intoxications in our region increased since 2018. Furthermore, our study tentatively indicates that weather conditions may influence the number of poisonings but also the species of toxic plants responsible for such poisonings. Awareness should be raised among equestrians that the number of certain plant intoxications threatens to increase in the future if climate change progresses. Further investigations are needed to test the hypothesis in a geographically wider area
Axial osteitis, which is relatively rarely described, is a pathology of the proximal sesamoid bone with associated lysis of the attachment sites of the palmar/plantar ligament (formerly the intersesamoideum ligament). The hind limb is most often affected and horses show marked lameness with a guarded prognosis regarding continued equestrian use. The present case report describes the case of a six-year-old dressage mare, from lameness examination through various diagnostic procedures using radiography, sonography, scintigraphy, computed tomography, and therapy by arthroscopic debridement and lavage, and multiple intramuscular injections of clodronic acid. A detailed limb examination of the warmblood mare was performed at the initial presentation, and the hoof of the affected limb was compressed to assess any tenderness. The horse was also assessed on hard and soft ground at a walk and trot, on the straight and curved line and on the lunge. Mepivacaine hydrochlo-ride [dosage: 20 mg/ml] was used as the anaesthetic during the subsequently performed conduction anaesthesia. Arthroscopy was performed under general anaesthesia (sedation: xylazine [dosage: 1.1 mg/kg i.v.], induction: diazepam [dosage: 0.02 mg/kg i.v.] and ketamine [dosage: 1.5 mg/kg i.v.]; maintenance by isoflurane [dosage: 1.2-1.5 %]). The joint was treated by means of debridement and lavage within the op-eration. The horse was examined daily postoperatively until discharge. This included checking the weight bearing on the limb, swelling and warmth of the limb, and the fit of the dressing. The horse underwent preoperative blood tests, including a small blood count and renal values. She was also administered benzylpenicillin-procaine and flunixin-meglumine on the day of arthroscopy. Additionally, clodronic acid was given via intramuscular injection 10 days after the operation [dosage: 1.53 mg/kg i.m.; maximum dose is 765 mg clodronic acid per horse]. Fol-lowing this, the horse was put on three weeks of complete box rest, followed by controlled hand walking for six months. The mare was then gently trained in the aqua trainer before continuing work under saddle. After 1.5 years, the mare was once again able to compete in advanced dressage competitions at the German level S. Unfortunately, despite the straightforward diagnosis, the prognosis remains moderate to poor. This is primarily due to the fact that the exact cause of the condition is not fully understood and the therapy has not yet proven to be effective. The prognosis appears to be significantly influenced by the time elapsed between the onset of the disease and the initiation of treatment. Further research is necessary to establish a standardised therapeutic approach. The combination of arthroscopy and bisphosphonates, along with early diagnosis following disease onset, can greatly improve the prognosis of axial osteitis. In this case, the mare's prompt presentation to the clinic, combined with the therapy administered, allowed her to fully recover and return to competitive sport. Currently, there are only publications available on conservative or surgical treatments. The combination of surgical and conservative therapies has successfully restored the horse's full load-bearing capacity and rideability in a condition with a typically guarded prognosis. It is crucial to ascertain whether this combination of therapies would yield similar success in other horses, including those with more severe findings. It is also important to assess the timing between disease onset and the initiation of therapy. It may be possible to treat horses that have had axial osteitis for a prolonged period with this therapy combination. Further research is necessary, along with a comprehensive understanding of the underlying cause, to make further assertions in this regard.
Unilateral purulent rhinorrhea can have various causes. In most cases, it is due to sinusitis which can be of primary or secondary origin. Other possible differential diagnoses include, for example, dentogenic cysts, progressive ethmoidal hematoma, polyodontia, sinus cysts, or empy-ema. In rare cases, a bronchial disease is also possible. In the present case report, an empyema of the middle conchal sinus is diagnosed and treated. A 13-year-old Oldenburger gelding was presented with purulent rhinorrhea. The gelding showed similar symptoms two years prior to presentation, which were based on a dental sinusitis. Tooth 209 was diseased and extracted with subsequent flushing of the caudal and rostral maxillary sinus. Post-operative healing was uneventful. However, the gelding showed recurring symptoms. Clinical, endoscopic and radiographic examination revealed no obvious cause for the unilateral rhinorrhea. A computed tomography (CT) examination showed an en-largement of the left middle conchal sinus and a sinus cyst or empyema was suspected. Endoscopic laser surgery (diode laser) was performed. The endoscope was advanced through the left ventral nasal meatus in the direction of the left middle concha sinus. The mass of the left middle conchal sinus was superficially anesthetized with lidocaine hydrochloride. The laser was used at a power setting that allowed fenestration of the sinus, indicated by the release of purulent exudate into the nasal cavity. The ostium was enlarged from dorsal to ventral to ensure drainage and to enable flushing. The flushing was repeated the next day. The clinical symptoms resolved and the horse was discharged after a week of hospitalisation. Decompression and drainage of the empyema were necessary to resolve clinical signs. The horse remained without symptoms during the follow up period (up to 6 months).
This case series describes three horses presented with masses in the mid and distal tail region. Cytology, histopathology and radiography identified the masses as dermal melanoma and amelanotic melanoma. In all three horses, tail amputation was performed successfully in the standing horse with sedation and an epidural anaesthesia. Two horses diagnosed with an amelanotic melanoma, showed recurrence 2 and 5 months after surgery and were euthanised. The other horse showed no recurrence six months after tail amputation. The horse was performing at previous performance level and showed no complaints of increased insect harassment. This case series describes three non-grey horses with melanocytic masses on the tail, with an amelanotic melanoma carrying a poor prognosis.
This case report describes the case of a 16-year-old minishetlandpony gelding with acute and progressive ataxia. The horse was presented to the Equine Department of the Vetsuisse-Faculty of Zurich with a staggering gait, an ataxia grade 3/5 (according to Mayhew's Ataxia Scale), as well as hindlimbs weakness to the point of falling over. In the neurological examination, the consciousness and behavior and the cranial nerves were normal, but the proprioception was decreased in all four limbs, especially in the hindlimbs. The symptoms could then be localized to a spinal cord problem in the cervical region. X-ray images of the cervical spine were taken; however, these showed only mild osteoarthritis of the synovial joints C5-C6 and C6-C7, probably an incidental finding, and could not explain the neurological symptoms. The pony was then discharged and a treatment with NSAID's (Flunixin meglumin;1 mg/kg BID, p.o.) started. At home, the symptoms deteriorated rapidly to the point of recumbency. The pony was readmitted few days later. The gait analysis showed stiff hindquarters and ataxia of 4/5. After 20 minutes the gelding was again recumbent and not able to get up alone. The next diagnostical step was a myelography followed by computed tomography with contrast medium. For this the horse was placed in general anesthesia. A cerebrospinal fluid puncture was performed in the median at the level of the cranial end of both atlas-wings. Cerebrospinal fluid was taken and sent for cytological examination. Next the contrast medium Omnipaque (Omnipaque (R) 350; 10-15 ml/100 kg, in total 20 ml) was injected over the duration of 5 minutes. First, laterolateral images of the cervical spine were obtained in normal position, as well as in hyperextension and hyperflexion. Immediately after the radiological examination, a computed tomographic examination of the entire spine was performed using a 40-slice helical CT scanner (Somatom Sensation Open, Siemens AG, Switzerland). In the CT images a well-limited, large mass dorsal and to the right of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata could be clearly identified. The mass showed to be soft tissue dense and resulted in a high-grade extradural compression of the spinal cord at C1-C2. Thus, the diagnosis after CT myelography was a soft tissue dense mass at C1-C2, in the epidural space, leading to extradural compression of the spinal cord. Due to the advanced symptoms and the poor prognosis, the pony was euthanized and sent for a full post-mortem examination. Grossly, a 4 cm round, dark gray to black mass was detected in the epidural space, in the area of the atlanto-occipital junction. The adjacent muscles around C1-C2, where the mass was located, showed a focal black discoloration. The spinal cord itself showed no macroscopic changes. Histological examination revealed an infiltratively growing mass into muscles and dura mater, that consisted of spindle-shaped to round neoplastic cells with dark-brown, granular cytoplasm. The neoplasm exhibited signs of malignancy like invasion of surrounding tissue and vessels and cell pleomorphism. No infiltration of tumor cells was detected in the spinal cord itself. However, a high-grade focal degenerative myelopathy could be detected. Finally, the diagnosis after dissection was a malignant melanocytic tumor (melanoma) in the vertebral canal at the atlanto-occipital junction with a consecutive high-grade focal degenerative myelopathy, which most likely had caused the neurological symptoms. This case shows that, also when no external melanomas are visible in a horse, internal melanomas cannot be excluded and the primary tumor can also occur in an atypical location, such as the spinal canal.
Metformin is a widely prescribed oral antihyperglycemic agent and currently a first-line medication in the treatment of human type 2 diabetes, with a total of 92 million US prescriptions in 2022. The daily dose per human can be as much as 2.5 grams/day which is excreted largely unchanged into the environment. Metformin is chemically stable and a widely distributed environmental substance. Metformin therefore has the potential to be identified at trace levels in equine blood and urine samples as a result of random exposure to environmental metformin. Given these circumstances we have reviewed the scientific literature and calculated an irrelevant blood/plasma/serum concentration of metformin of 5 nanograms/ml. We now therefore propose this plasma concentration of metformin as an interim Screening Limit of Detection (SLOD) for metformin, below which concentration a blood/plasma/serum identification of metformin should not be considered appropriate for regulatory action.
