In this study, the stratigraphic and sedimentological data have been utilized to decipher the tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Kalat and Mach area of the northern Kirthar Range, Balochistan Basin, Pakistan. Three (3) stratigraphic sections are measured, and the Jurassic-Paleogene facies variation with their depositional environments is documented in the study area. Based on the biostratigraphic and facies augmented information, four tectonostratigraphic evolution stages are described which include a) The late early Jurassic (Toarcian)-mid Jurassic (Callovian-Aalenian) around 180 Ma-159.4 Ma; the deposition of Anjira-Chiltan Formation, and a late Jurassic thermal uplift; preceding the Indo-Madagascar separation from the Afro-Arbian Plate may have caused the shallowing and ultimately the exposure of mid Jurassic carbonate platform forming an erosional unconformity, b) early Cretaceous (Berreiasian) black clays and the interbedded clastics of the Parh Limestone (equivalent to the Sembar Formation) relates to the thermal uplift of the eastern margin of the Indo-Pak Plate and reworking of the late Jurassic paleosoles of the Chiltan Formation in the deep marine settings. c) The constituent facies of the Accretionary Prism Sediments (APS) and its stratigraphic relationship within the study area confirms that its obduction is related to the middle Cretaceous (late Coniacian-early Santonian) around 84-86 Ma during passive margin phase of the Indian Plate d) The uplift of the middle Eocene (Lutetian) carbonate platform is evident from the deposition of the fluvial reddish clays which are sandwiched between the foraminiferal limestone of the Kirthar Formation. The study area has promising reservoir rock potential, with multiple horizons present. Notable candidates include the Chiltan limestone, Parh Limestone, and various dolomite and sandstone horizons. The Ghazij Formation, rich in shale, is an ideal seal. However, an angular unconformity at the base of the Kirthar Formation suggests Eocene deformation, raising uncertainties about its presence. Despite these uncertainties, the study area has favorable geological characteristics for a viable petroleum system.
Soil moisture scarcity is a major constraint to achieving potential soil productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. Hydrogel application has shown promise in addressing this issue, but its benefits for crop improvement and soil moisture retention require further exploration. This study evaluated the impact of hydrogel on soil moisture retention, soil characteristics, and wheat yield in a rainfed agricultural system in Jand, Attock. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) experiment with four replications was conducted from 2018 to 2021, comprising three treatments: control (no hydrogel), hydrogel application via seed drill, and hydrogel application via broadcast. Results revealed significant enhancements in relative soil moisture contents (up to 33.25%) and wheat yield (3960 kg ha(-1)) with hydrogel application. Increase in nutrient availability (2.57 to 3.43 mg kg(-1) of P2O5, 51.26 to 76 K2O) and soil organic matter contents (0.62 to 0.77) were also observed. This study demonstrated the potential of hydrogel as a strategy to improve crop productivity in rainfed regions.
The detrimental effects of droughts on water resources and agriculture can lead to significant economic losses and risk to lives. Using key climatic factors to analyze changes in a relevant index, this study aims to forecast droughts. The study is structured into three distinct phases. First, the computation of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) for the Chitral and Swat River basins was carried out using data from 1981 to 2022. This index is designed to predict both short-term and long-term droughts. Second, the dataset was split into training and testing sets, with 80% designated for training and 20% for testing the models, employing algorithms such as XGBoost, Decision Tree, AdaBoost, and Linear Regression, along with various climate variables. Finally, the models were evaluated using statistical metrics like R-2 (Coefficient of Determination), RMSE (Root Mean Square Error), MAE (Mean Absolute Error), and MSE (Mean Squared Error), and future predictions from 2023 to 2045 were made based on the well-trained and tested models. The results demonstrate promising performance, with R-2 values of 0.968, 0.906, 0.901, and 0.287, and RMSE values of 0.265, 0.291, 0.302, and 0.837 for XGBoost, AdaBoost, Decision Tree, and Linear Regression, respectively. The SPEI shows potential as a useful tool for drought prediction, and spatial distribution mapping in ArcMap using the Inverse Distance Weighting method reveals persistent moderate droughts in both basins. Additional research using a larger dataset or combining data from different areas could enhance the applicability of the findings and lead to a deeper understanding.
Indoor air pollution in rural and resource-constrained households is primarily caused by the use of biomass fuel in cookstoves, a significant risk factor for morbidity and mortality throughout the world. This study uniquely investigates indoor microplastic pollution from cookstove emissions in Pakistani slums, as plastic has been identified as one of the major tertiary fuels used to start cookstoves, addressing a major research gap. Unlike previous local studies focused on outdoor air, this study identifies and characterizes polymeric particles in PM10 and PM2.5 from 2 different cookstoves, using FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, offering first-time molecular evidence in this context. Particulate matter (PM) samples were collected both from the traditional and the locally manufactured rocket biomass cookstove kitchens, within H-11 and F-11 slums in Islamabad, Pakistan. Two analytical techniques, Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), were employed to identify and characterize microplastics in PM10 and PM2.5 samples. The detected polymers included polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyolefins, and polyurethanes. At Site 2, LDPE, polyolefins, and polypropylene were identified. Results from the comparative analysis of traditional and rocket stoves in PM10 and PM2.5 samples revealed a significant difference in the concentration of particulate matter contamination at both sites. The findings from this study indicate that the rocket stove had a lower concentration of particulate matter in PM10 and PM2.5 samples as compared to the traditional stove, which may suggest that microplastic concentration was also lower, thereby offering enhanced potential health benefits for users, as inhalation and continuous exposure to microplastics are associated with adverse health effects. Overall, ICS reduced PM10 concentrations by 38.73% and PM2.5 concentrations by 34.75% across both monitored sites. This study emphasizes the importance of using rocket stoves as they offer a superior alternative to traditional stoves by reducing particulate matter and microplastic exposure, making them a cleaner and safer cooking option in slum areas.
There is an increasing global concern about the potential environmental impacts of the continuous expansion of highways and transportation infrastructure, particularly regarding air quality. This research provides a comprehensive analysis of the effects of highway development, specifically the M3 Motorway, on air quality in the Punjab region by integrating innovative air impact prediction models and spatial analysis techniques. This research uses ground-based data from 2006 to 2022 and Remote Sensing data (Sentinel-5P and MODIS) from 2018 to 2022. The analysis is focused on the concentrations of key air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), aerosol optical depth (AOD), formaldehyde (HCHO), and ozone (O-3). The results revealed that SO2 concentrations fluctuated noticeably, ranging from 0.08 to 0.26 mu mol/m(2). Higher amounts were regularly noted in the Renala Khurd and Kabir Wala regions. Similarly, NO2 values ranged from 78.65 to 97.54 mu mol/m(2) in the Renala Khurd and Sahiwal regions. The concentrations of CO varied between 36.30 and 40.30 mu mol/m2, with higher values found in urban areas. The concentration of CH4 was noted from 188058 to 1920961.12 mu mol/m(2), reflecting the effects of industry and agricultural pollutants. Predictive modelling coupled with spatial analysis provides a thorough framework for evaluating the complex links between highway construction and air quality. This study helps to balance contemporary transportation networks and environmental stewardship by advancing a more nuanced knowledge of the environmental impact of highway developments in Punjab.
Pakistan faces a growing energy demand, and thermal springs represent a potentially significant renewable energy source. This naturally heated thermal water can be harnessed for power generation, space heating, and greenhouses, offering a renewable and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Pakistan possesses significant, yet underdeveloped, thermal potential, and exploring and harnessing these resources could yield substantial environmental and economic benefits. The Tattapani thermal spring in Kotli, Azad Kashmir, is investigated for its geothermal energy potential due to its probable high temperatures, favorable geological conditions, and accessibility. The study aims to identify the subsurface geological structure, map the lithology, estimate the depth of the thermal spring reservoir, and infer the migration patterns of the thermal water. The resistivity profile of the Tattapani thermal spring unveiled five distinct layers exhibiting varying resistivity values. The uppermost layer, characterized by a high resistivity zone (> 500 Omega m), corresponds to the dolomitic rock of the Abbottabad Formation. The second layer delineates lithological units of Murree sandstone, displaying resistivity values between >200 Omega m and <= 500 Omega m, indicative of potential meteoric freshwater. The third layer, marked by a resistivity range of >50 Omega m to <= 200 Omega m, signifies shaley to clayey lithology of the Patala Formation, indicating weathering and erosion by thermal fluid. The fourth layer corresponds to the migration of thermal plumes with a resistivity value of >25 Omega m to <= 50 Omega m, while a value of >05 Omega m characterizes the fifth thermal spring layer of very low resistivity to <= 25 Omega m. The very low resistivity values observed in the fifth layer are indicative of an anomalous zone, a characteristic feature of thermal springs. This low resistivity can be attributed to the high concentration of dissolved electrolytes within the mineral-rich thermal fluids. These fluids likely facilitate the alteration, weathering, and erosion of the surrounding rock formations, further enhancing the conductive nature of the zone. The Tattapani thermal spring exhibits a depth range of approximately 35-40 meters, increasing in the northeast-southwest (NE-SW) direction. Thermal plumes, primarily migrating in a NE-SW direction, have a depth range of about 25 meters. The VES data also delineates two aquifers: a shallow aquifer at approximately 10 meters' depth and a deeper aquifer extending up to 20 meters, both hosted within the sandstone lithology. The shallow depth of the thermal plumes raises concerns about potential contamination of the deeper groundwater aquifer due to their overlapping depths. However, the presence of a barrier layer composed of shaley clay likely protects the shallow aquifer from current contamination. VES data revealed high-resistivity zones (dolomite) and low-resistivity zones (shale), consistent with Cambrian-Paleocene formations. The thermal spring is likely to emerge to the surface through a weak zone along the contact of shale and dolomite. A close correlation between the geological and resistivity sections suggests the presence of a fault or weak zone underlying the spring. This structure could facilitate a thermal convection cell, drive hot water upwelling, and potentially source it from the Poonch River. Detailed magnetic, gravity, and geochemical surveys are recommended to portray the deep-seated structure of the Tattapani thermal spring, while a geochemical survey will demarcate the contamination source by plume migration. Geothermometry and isotopic analysis are also recommended to show the subsurface temperature of thermal water.
This research study was conducted to assess the suitability of the Kohat Limestone from the Sur-Dag section as a construction aggregate for civil engineering purposes, utilizing geological laboratory testing. Limestone aggregates are essential components in both small and large-scale civil works projects, including pavements, buildings, bridges, roads, and dams. In addition to being produced from synthetic materials like slags, aggregates are derived from natural materials, including rock, sand, and gravel. The use of these aggregates in any project depends on their engineering properties. These engineering properties should meet the specified standard designated by different organizations like the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the British Standards (BS). Laboratory tests were conducted in accordance with these standards to evaluate various parameters of the Eocene Kohat Formation, including specific gravity, water absorption, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV), Flakiness Index (FI), Elongation Index (EI), Los Angeles Abrasion value (LAAV), Aggregate Impact Value (AIV), as well as coating and stripping values. The Formation is well developed and exposed in the Southern Kohat Basin. At the outcrop level, the color is cream to gray, well-bedded, compact, hard, and rich in fossils. The values of all engineering properties of the samples fall within the acceptable standard ranges. Therefore, this research provides reliable data regarding the suitability and availability of the Kohat Limestone as a construction aggregate in this region. This study concludes that the Kohat Formation is suitable to be used as a sub-base, base course, and concrete aggregates for the construction of buildings and pavements.
Seismic attributes have emerged as indispensable tools in hydrocarbon exploration, facilitating the identification and characterization of subsurface reservoirs, including fluvial channel systems. These attributes enhance the interpretation of seismic data by extracting quantitative geological and petrophysical information. This study focuses on the B-Sand reservoir within the Cretaceous Lower Goru Formation in the NIM Block of the Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan, which is a proven hydrocarbon-bearing interval. Using integrated seismic and well log data, we analyzed four key seismic attributes, which are sweetness, trace envelope (TE), relative acoustic impedance (RAI), and root mean square (RMS) amplitude, to delineate fluvial channels and assess reservoir potential. Well log interpretations confirm two dominant lithologies within the B-Sand reservoir: sandstone and shale. Seismic mapping reveals a single prominent horizon and four faults, indicative of a step-faulting structural regime. Sweetness highlights high-amplitude zones, correlating with potential hydrocarbon-saturated sand units. RAI analysis effectively discriminates lithological variations, while TE attributes suggest possible gas accumulations. RMS Amplitude further corroborates hydrocarbon indicators, reinforcing the reservoir's prospectivity. The synergistic application of these attributes demonstrates significant hydrocarbon potential within the B-Sand reservoir, justifying further exploration. This approach provides a robust workflow for reservoir characterization in analogous fluvio-deltaic systems.
This study models the current and future distribution of Cedrus Deodara, a native conifer of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, at a spatial resolution of 1 km. Presence-only occurrence data were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and combined with bioclimatic and topographic variables. To reduce redundancy, a multicollinearity test was performed on 22 candidate predictors, and highly correlated variables (r >= 0.9) were excluded. The Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model was applied to predict species distribution under present conditions and two future climate scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) for 2090. Model performance was evaluated using the AUC, TSS, and overall accuracy. The obtained results show a good performance of the model for present and future models as well, gaining the ROC-AUC value of 0.72 and 0.77, respectively. Based on the 10th percentile training presence-threshold dependent, the overall accuracy of the model and TSS are 0.75 and 0.74, respectively. Jackknife analysis revealed precipitation variables as the most influential contributors to Cedrus Deodara distribution. Results suggest that the species will experience substantial habitat contraction under SSP2-4.5, whereas distributional shifts under SSP5-8.5 are comparatively minor. These findings emphasize the vulnerability of Cedrus Deodara to climate change and demonstrate the value of MaxEnt modeling for informing conservation and management strategies in biodiversity-rich regions.
This study has investigated the impact of dumping sites on groundwater quality in Hazar Khwani, Peshawar, Pakistan. Twelve water samples were randomly selected, with four reference samples collected far from the dumping site and eight representative samples taken within a one-kilometer vicinity. These samples were analyzed for physiochemical parameters and fecal contamination. The results showed that mean values for pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl), and total alkalinity (TA) are from 6.13 to 6.83, 657.92 to 2392.2 mg/L, 696.91 to 2658 mu S/cm, 394 mg/L to 1030 mg/L, 32 to 573 mg/L and 318 to 716 mg/L respectively. The mean concentrations of heavy metals for zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) were from 0 to 0.018 mg/L, 0.01 to 0.087 mg/L, 0.04 to 0.142 mg/L, 0 to 0.08 mg/L, and 0.02 to 0.09 mg/L, respectively. Total and fecal coliform contamination was found in 7 out of 12 water samples. The analysis revealed negative correlations between distance and TDS, EC, chloride, Cd, Cu, Cr, and Ni, with particularly strong negative correlations observed for Cd, Cu, and Cr. Depth was negatively correlated with pH, TH, TA, Cu, and Zn, but positively with TDS, EC, chloride, Cd, and Ni. Strong positive correlations were found among TDS, EC, TH, and chloride, and between Cd-Cu, Cd-Cr, and Cu-Cr. Negative correlations were seen for Cd-Ni, Cu-Ni, Cr-Zn, and Zn-Ni. The samples that surpassed the Pak-NEQS and WHO limits had 75% TDS, 58% TA, 8% Cl, 42% TA, 92% EC, 67% Cd, 67% Ni, 83% Cr, and 58% bacteriological contamination. To reduce any negative effects, waste disposal should be properly monitored.
Floods are among the most devastating climate-induced hazards, with severe socioeconomic consequences, particularly in underdeveloped countries. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change and has experienced several catastrophic flood events in recent decades. This study assesses future flood risks in the Panjkora River Basin, one of the major catchments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, using hydrological and hydraulic modeling under different climate change scenarios. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was employed to simulate hydrological processes using a 29-year weather dataset (1981-2010). Model calibration (1981-2002) and validation (2003-2010) demonstrated strong performance, with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.731 and 0.721 and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) values of 0.72 and 0.71, respectively. Future projections were analyzed under Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP 2-4.5, moderate emissions, and SSP 5-8.5, high emissions) for three periods: near future (2026-2050), mid-century (2051-2075), and late century (2076-2099). Flood inundation mapping was conducted using the Hydrologic Engineering Centre's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS). The results reveal a significant increase in flood inundation, particularly under SSP 5-8.5. Discharge is projected to increase by approximately 25% under SSP 2-4.5 and 27% under SSP 5-8.5 compared to the historical baseline. These findings underscore the increasing flood risks in the Panjkora River Basin under future climate change scenarios and highlight the need for adaptive water resource management and disaster risk reduction strategies in the region.
Investigating changes in vegetation is crucial for understanding interactions between land and atmosphere, and their consequent effects on climate. The variations in Land Use Land Cover hold profound implications for environmental conditions and landscape characteristics. In this study, we focus on detecting transformations in green spaces and analyzing the landscape patterns within Murree Tehsil, which is an area driven by rapidly increasing urbanization trends and eco-tourism attractions in Pakistan. We employed multi-temporal Landsat imagery, including TM and OLI-TRIS from the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, and detected changes in the green space and calculated various landscape metrics. Our findings show concerning trends, as the dense vegetation that accounted for 62.44% in 2000 decreased to a mere 56.31% by 2020. In contrast, sparse vegetation and settlements, which represented 22.06% and 2.02% in 2000, surged to 30.13% and 6.73%, respectively, by 2020. The landscape metrics also revealed decreasing trends until 2010 and a slight increase in 2020 due to afforestation efforts. The dynamic transformation of Murree's landscape underscores a multifaceted process that is fundamentally reshaping the local ecosystem. Considering these changes, it becomes important to assess and estimate such changes with precision. Such understanding would have a direct relevance for effective planning and the sustainable utilization of our natural resources.
Glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalaya region impact Earth's climate, contribute freshwater downstream, and influence weather patterns of precipitation and temperature. However, the region needs more detailed information about its glaciers. Specifically, the stability of glaciers in the Karakoram range of the Hunza sub-basin is a well-known anomaly. Therefore, monitoring its glaciers is needed to understand the dynamics of climate change in HKH. Glacier inventory is baseline data for monitoring, and the clear-ice surface is a quantifying parameter of glacier changes. Recently, Operational Land Imager (OLI), exploited with machine learning (ML), is highly recommended for glacier monitoring due to improved accuracy. So, it is necessary to update the current status of glaciers in sub-basin using OLI and ML. Therefore, the study aims a) to evaluate the current extent of clear ice in the sub-basin to examine stability and b) to exploit the application of ML for extracting clear ice from OLI and assess accuracy. Google Earth environment is used to derive the data of Optical Land Imager and further analyze it with a machine learning approach to classify the extent of clear ice. Random Forest classifier with minimum Root means square error (0.1 to 0.4) used through SNAP environment. Results indicate satisfactory spatial distribution of clear ice in higher elevations (> 5000 meters). 10 % area difference percentage exhibited in overall extent; however, 28 glaciers (area > 5 km(2)) showed variation in the extent and confirmed the localized heterogeneity. Overall accuracy (82% to 83 %) and kappa coefficient values (0.64 to 0.65) confirm the role of individual bands of OLI. It is concluded that the glaciers in the sub-basin have an overall stable clear-ice extent except for variations in terminal ends. Meanwhile, machine learning has a significant role in the automatic extraction of clear ice when exploited with the OLI.
The Rois anticline is located in the Southern Kirthar Fold Belt, Pakistan, and it exhibits an ideal example of fault-related folding. In this study we analyzed outcrop and lineaments data to understand geometry, lineament distribution pattern and kinematics of the fault-propagation Rois anticline. The outcrop observations were supported with geometrical parameters determined through stereographic projections to understand geometry of the anticline. Outcrop observations indicated that the Rois anticline is about 6.5Km along and 02Km across strike, N-S trending, culminated anticline having steep eastern and gentle western limbs, exhibiting four-way dip enclosure. The anticline is bounded by emergent frontal thrust in the eastern limb and by tear fault (lateral ramp) along the northern part. Geometrical parameters, i.e. fold axis, axial plane, interlimb angle and fold vergence, indicated that the Rois anticline is an asymmetrical, doubly-plunging, inclined to upright, gentle to open and ESE-vergent fold. The lineaments were extracted automatically from Digital Elevation Models. The transverse and longitudinal lineaments are identified in the Rois anticline. Transverse lineaments occur in the culmination, indicating anticline has experienced outer-arc extension. The longitudinal lineaments are concentrated in hinge area of the Rois anticline, which indicate fold-parallel stretching in its high-strain parts. The lineaments are interpreted as fold-related axial fractures or minor faults associated with propagating fault. Emergent frontal thrust, fold asymmetry, steep eastern limb and longitudinal axial lineaments supports the model of fault-propagation fold. It is developed due to east-directed compressional stresses linked to the oblique collision of the Indian Plate andAfghan Block along the Ornach-Nal and Chaman plate boundary. The Rois anticline has accommodated localized coaxial strain partitioning, associated with regional pure shear.
The study evaluates the performance of J-head spur dikes in controlling lateral migration and bank district, Punjab, Pakistan. The erosion of the outer bank poses significant threats to infrastructures and local settlements, highlighting the need for spur dikes to regulate flow and implement protection measures. The HEC-RAS 2D model was used for this analysis. The results revealed that spur dikes oriented upstream were generally ineffective due to clogging of an active creek, whereas a downstream orientation at 120 degrees was found more effective in diverting flow towards the main channel than at 135 degrees. To manage high flood events, it was proposed to raise left bund by 2 ft and the spur at RD 138+000 by 1.50 ft. The performance of existing spur dikes was analyzed based on the prevailing spacing of 2 to 5 times the length of the spur at RD 138+000. Additional spur dikes at RD 141+500 and RD 154+000, near Samina Town and Basti Bhai, were introduced to improve flow patterns and protect irrigation infrastructures and local settlements. It was observed that at low flows, the velocity along both creeks was slightly declined from 1.09 to 0.92 ft/sec, while at high flows, the velocity reduced from 1.92 to 1.33 ft/sec between RD 138+000 and RD 148+000, and from 2.69 to 2.34 ft/sec between RD 148+000 and RD 165+000. These findings emphasize the need for customized spur dikes designs, considering orientation, spacing and hydraulic conditions. The findings of this study provide valuable insights and may be used to enhance flood management, infrastructure safety, and sustainable riverbank protection for future interventions.
The present study was conducted using fifty samples (tube wells, bore wells, and hand pumps) to investigate both the physical and chemical parameters of drinking water in the village of Palosi Maghdarzai, Kandi Bala, Peshawar. The analysis was carried out according to the standard analysis procedures reported in the literature. Several analytical techniques, including titration and flame photometry were employed to assess the level of drinking water quality in the area under investigation. The results obtained for each parameter were compared with the standard guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). The findings indicated that parameters like pH, Total dissolved solids (TDS), total alkalinity, chloride, and sodium in drinking water were within the permissible limits given by the WHO, while Electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, and potassium exceeded the permissible limit in some samples. It is concluded that tube well water can be considered safe amongst bore water and hand pump
The main objective of this study is to explore the application of3D subsurface modelling as an advanced data visualization technique in geotechnical engineering prior to the designing and planning of civil engineering infrastructure. A detailed three-dimensional subsurface model of New City Phase-II, Wah Cantt, is created using a large dataset of bore logs, encompassing coordinates, depth measurements, elevation data, and lithology types of the study area. The combination of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) technology has simplified the creation of this comprehensive three-dimensional model, resulting in a considerable advancement in the representation of complicated subsurface formations. The subsurface model highlighted the spatial distribution and lithological features of subsurface layers, indicating the presence of silty clay with varied stiffness at different depths. The validation using field data suggested a substantial spatial correlation, demonstrating the model's reliability. This study emphasizes the importance of 3D subsurface modelling in improving geotechnical site characterization, foundation design, hazard risk assessment, and effective land use planning. Future research will employ advanced imaging technologies, and data integration approaches to increase model accuracy and feasibility in a variety ofgeotechnical contexts.
In combined pile-raft foundations (CPRF), geotechnical engineers often assume that the lateral load is mainly supported by the piles, ignoring the contribution of the raft. This assumption can lead to a more expensive and less efficient foundation system. Various studies have examined the effects of factors such as the number of piles, pile length, pile configuration, and spacing-to-diameter ratio on the raft's contribution to lateral load. However, there is limited research on how vertical contact pressure beneath the raft affects the lateral load distribution between the raft and piles in CPRF. This study investigates the influence of vertical contact pressure on the lateral load distribution of raft and piles, focusing the impact on the front and back piles, and the effect of pile-raft configuration on lateral load distribution, while maintaining constant average vertical and lateral load per pile. In first case, a parametric study was conducted through finite element software PLAXIS-3D on small-scale piled raft model with configurations of 4 piles. Atotal of 14 models were created where vertical load was uniformly increased under a constant lateral load to observe the lateral response. In the second scenario, a piled raft with 4, 6 and 9 pile configurations were analysed such that average vertical and lateral load per pile across each model was maintained uniform. The results indicated that increasing vertical load enhanced the lateral response and reduced differential settlement in CPRF. The raft's lateral load contribution was found to be directly proportional to the vertical contact pressure. Additionally, at lower vertical loads, the front piles bear more lateral load than the back piles. As vertical load increased, the lateral load-bearing capacity of the back piles improved due to increased soil stiffness in front of the back piles.
The Neelum River in northern Pakistan has intricate flow characteristics owing to its unique geographic and climatic factors, which are essential for managing water resources and preventing floods. This study employs hydraulic modeling with the HEC-RAS program to assess the flow dynamics and flood risks of the Neelum River. The study focuses on two different river segments: the urbanized Muzaffarabad part and the natural stretch that runs from Panjgiran to Dhani. Based on topographical and infrastructure factors, hydraulic models were used to examine flow velocities, water depths, and flood threats. The topography and channel morphology in the natural segment affect both flow velocity and depth; at River Station 6966, the highest flow velocity of 6.26 m/s and the average water depth of 2.98 m were observed. On the other hand, the urbanized area of Muzaffarabad shows notable changes in its hydraulic behavior; the water surface heights in this area range from 925.65 to 945.20 meters, and the flow rates vary from 915.5 m/s to 940.0 m/s. The natural segment has a more curved channel and less erosion potential than the restricted channels and smaller floodplain regions in Muzaffarabad. These results emphasize the need for region-specific flood management plans that are adapted to the unique hydraulic characteristics and hazards of both rural and urban areas. Effective sustainable river management in both rural and urban environments can be accomplished by creating comprehensive flood profiles.
The petrographic analysis and physico-mechanical assessment of the Nikanai Ghar Formation, exposed in the vicinity of the Bando Obo marble, near Swabi Town, north-western Pakistan, were carried out to assess and look into its prospects to serve as a building stone for engineering projects. Nine fresh bulk samples representing different textural types were chosen to investigate petrographic properties, as well as the physical and mechanical behaviour of the Nikanai Ghar Formation. A series of geotechnical tests and petrographic analyses were carried out to assess the material's suitability for construction applications. These geotechnical tests included measurements of unconfined compressive strength (UCS), Unconfined tensile strength (UTS), specific gravity (SG), shear strength (SS), porosity, and water absorption. The obtained physical qualities were then compared to standard specifications to evaluate their appropriateness for use in construction. The analysed samples are divided into different textural and mineralogical categories based on a careful microscopic examination of three representative thin sections. Four of the samples, JTN-1, JTN-2, JTN-4, and JTN-7, have a striking mineralogical similarity, both consisting primarily of calcite with only traces of opaque ore minerals. However, their textures are different, i.e., shape, grain size, and grain boundaries. JTN-2, JTN-9, and JTN-8 samples are medium-grained and sub-equi-granular while JTN-1, JTN-4, and JTN-5 are predominantly fine-grained and equi-granular. The JTN-3, JTN-6, and JTN-7 Samples are coarse-grained and sub-equi-granular to granular and contain trace amounts of muscovite, rutile, and ilmenite. The analysis showed that the Nikanai Ghar Formation can be used as aggregates by the domestic building sector because it falls within the parameters of standard specifications.
