The global rise of antimicrobial resistance poses a critical threat to public health, urging an immediate need for the exploration of novel therapeutic agents. This study investigated the inhibitory potential of Gaultheria fragranntissima (Indian wintergreen) oil and extracts against selected bacterial strains. Phytochemicals were extracted using the maceration method, and antibacterial activity was assessed via the paper-disc diffusion method. In vitro results revealed that the methanolic and acetonic extracts exhibited notable inhibitory effects against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, producing zones of inhibition measuring 8.4 and 9.9 mm, respectively, while Escherichia coli was resistant to all four tested extracts. Wintergreen oil also showed moderate inhibitory effects against both the gram-negative strains E. coli KT45 and P. aeruginosa MTCC 1263, with zone of inhibition 6.5 mm and 6.1 mm, respectively. In the present study, the molecular docking analysis was also performed against key bacterial target proteins-DNA gyrase B and the selected phytocompounds of essential oil and leaf as ligands. These findings suggest that G. fragrantissima oil and leaf phytochemicals are promising candidates for novel therapeutics against MDR pathogens and can be seen as an alternative for developing future formulations to treat bacterial infections.
Lactose intolerance is a widespread digestive disorder which has been the subject of extensive research since its discovery in the 1960s. It is caused due to insufficient lactase activity in the small intestine leading to ineffective lactose hydrolysis and is often associated with gastrointestinal symptoms. The present study aims to evaluate the potential of plant-derived indole-alkaloids to modulate lactase activity. Natural compounds extracted from medicinal plants, including Catharanthus roseus, Alstonia scholaris, Tabernaemontana divaricata and Peganum harmala were investigated for their interaction with lactase enzyme. The research encompassed a structural analysis of lactose and lactase, followed by blind docking studies using the CB-Dock server to assess the interaction between the enzyme and alkaloid-containing natural products. Pocket P3 showed strongest binding with indole-3-acetic acid (-7.0 kcal/mol), then came alkaloid extracts from Catharanthus roseus and Peganum harmala (-6.8 kcal/mol). Computational predictions were validated through in vitro assays such as ONPG and enzyme activity assays, for measuring ß-galactosidase activity. ONPG-based qualitative assay resulted in increased chromogenic response in the presence of alkaloidal fraction compared to enzyme control. This multimodal approach offers insight into the potential role of natural compounds as complementary or alternative approaches for controlling lactose intolerance and their possible involvement in boosting lactase function.
Citrus limetta is a widely consumed fruit worldwide, and its peel is rich in antioxidant-abundant polyphenols. This research investigates the phytochemical screening, antioxidant potential, and anti-cancer effect of Citrus limetta peel extract against A431 cell lines. Preliminary phytochemical screening of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, chloroform, methanol, ethanol, and aqueous extracts revealed that the methanolic, ethanolic, and aqueous extracts were rich in phenolic, flavonoids, tannins, and triterpenoids. Quantitative analysis showed that the highest phenolic (22.69 ± 0.25 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid content (32.97 ± 0.14 mg QE/g) was observed in the ethanolic extract, whereas the aqueous extract showed the highest tannin content (24.84 ± 0.23 mg GAE/g). Chromatographic profiling confirmed the presence of hesperidin as a major bioactive constituent. TLC and HPLTLC analyses showed that the Rf values of the ethanolic extract were comparable to those of hesperidin. HPLC analysis revealed hesperidin content (27.4 mg/g) in the ethanolic extract. Antioxidant assays revealed that the ethanolic extract exhibited the strongest radical scavenging activity through DPPH, H2O2, ABTS, and FRAP assays. The ethanolic extract was further evaluated for cytotoxicity on A431 cell lines. A concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability was observed following 16 h treatment, with an IC50 value of 3 µg/mL. The study highlights the potential of citrus peel as a sustainable and promising candidate for skin cancer management. Further in vivo investigations are required to validate its therapeutic potential.
Peptic ulcers are typical gastrointestinal disorders with increased morbidity rates among the population. Currently available allopathic medicines have numerous side effects. Therefore, there is a high demand for herbal and polyherbal therapeutics in South Asian countries as gastroprotective agents and they have been effective and used for many years, though not scientifically proven. When herbal compounds are formulated from multiple plant sources, a synergistic gastroprotective effect can be achieved. Several animal studies report on the efficacy of herbal formulations as gastroprotective agents. Nevertheless, these have not been extended to clinical trials, and only a single study has evaluated polyherbal formulation in patients with gastritis. Clinical and experimental studies on herbal formulations for gastritis were analyzed on several major databases to synthesize this review article. Therefore, this review aims to present the efficacy of gastroprotective herbal and polyherbal formulations based on research done predominantly on animal models. The ulcer index, percentage decrease of the ulcer formation, pH of gastric tissue, gastric volume, antioxidant enzymes levels and inflammatory gastric tissue markers in ulcer-induced animals that were administered each herbal preparation as compared to the groups of the ulcer-induced animals treated by the reference drug are presented herein. Also, the mechanisms of action that can underlie the gastroprotective effects of the herbal and polyherbal preparations were also discussed. Upon well-controlled clinical trials, these herbal products could be promoted as novel pharmaceuticals with the potential to benefit patients with gastritis.
This study evaluates the efficacy of hydro-methanolic extraction for recovering bioactive compounds from pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) pericarp and characterizes its antioxidant potential. A high extraction yield of 43.85% was obtained, surpassing many values reported in the literature and corroborating recent optimization of extraction parameters. The total phenolic content (TPC), determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, was 109.11 ± 0.015 mg GAE/g of dry extract. The total flavonoid content (TFC), assessed by aluminum chloride complexation, was 151.57 ± 0.007 mg CE/g. These results, consistent with current data, confirm the richness of the plant material, influenced by agronomic and methodological factors. The antioxidant activity, evaluated by the DPPH assay, revealed exceptional potency with an IC50 value of 0.30 µg/mL. This activity is 433-fold superior to that of the ascorbic acid reference standard (IC50 = 130.0 µg/mL) and ranks among the highest documented for a natural antioxidant. A statistically robust positive correlation (r > 0.987, p < 0.001) was established between TPC, TFC, and radical scavenging activity, confirming these compounds as the primary contributors to the antioxidant effect. This dose-dependent activity is attributed to the synergistic action of major polyphenols identified in the literature (ellagitannins such as punicalagin, ellagic acid, anthocyanins), acting through complementary mechanisms of radical scavenging, metal chelation, and modulation of redox-sensitive signaling pathways (Nrf2, NF-?B). The biological implications of this profile are substantial. Beyond its primary antioxidant activity, the extract demonstrates promising therapeutic potential documented in preclinical models, including anti-inflammatory (cytokine modulation), antidiabetic (á-glucosidase inhibition), and antitumor effects via apoptosis induction, cell cycle arrest, and angiogenesis inhibition. These results validate the hydro-methanolic pomegranate pericarp extract as a highly concentrated source of bioactive polyphenols with significant antioxidant power and multifaceted therapeutic relevance.
Adequate naming of medically significant plant species is crucial to the conservation of biodiversity, taxonomic verification and contaminating mixtures of herbs. The current research was intended to molecularly verify Rivina humilis with the help of chloroplast DNA barcoding. Genomic DNA was amplified of the chloroplast ribulose-1, 5 -bisphosphate carboxylase large subunit gene region followed by bidirectional sequencing. Forward and reverse sequences were combined together such that they gave a good consensus sequence to be used in comparative analysis. The identification of species was done by sequence similarity search that was made against distribution databases that were being made publicly. The resultant sequence was exhibiting high percentage identity and full query coverage to the validated accessions of R. humilis and statistically important scores of alignment. Phylogenetic analysis also served as a creation of confirmation that the species was identified through a clustering of the study sample within the R. humilis clade that had high support through bootstrap. The amplification produced only one distinct fragment of around 600 base pairs which was a sign of specificity and no contamination. The results indicated that DNA barcoding based on chloroplast genes was an accurate and consistent process of molecular authentication of the species. The produced validated molecular data was ahead of creating reference barcode libraries and augmenting the taxonomic identification. The findings justified the use of molecular identification tools in the study of medicinal plants, measuring biodiversity and conservation of wild plants as well as quality advances of plant products.
COVID is a severe and contagious infection caused by SARS-CoV2, leading to respiratory ailments. It has many variants, one of which, omicron, was targeted in this study. Till February 2023, 0.68 million cases and fatalities have occurred worldwide due to SARS-CoV2. Several COVID medications, including remdesivir and dexamethasone, have been approved for use worldwide. However, remdesivir has side effects, such as seizures, skin rash, trouble breathing, liver damage, and high blood sugar. This study found a less harmful and potential alternative, Cordifolioside A phytochemical obtained from Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy). In comparison with the FDA-approved COVID drug remdesivir, which has a docking score of - 7.96 and an MM-GBSA value of -76.03 kcal/mol, cordifolioside A has a higher docking score of -9.97 and an MM-GBSA value of -82.79 kcal/mol. Additionally, it shows the potential to interact with both open and closed spike proteins of Omicron. This provides evidence that Cordifolioside A can be used to target the COVID infection caused by the omicron variant.
Bauhinia acuminata L., belonging to the family Fabaceae, has been traditionally employed in various indigenous medicinal practices of the Indian subcontinent. Despite its long-standing therapeutic use, systematic scientific evaluation of its bioactive potential has remained limited. The present review discussed and analyzed experimental findings related to the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of this species. Phytochemical screening of different plant parts revealed the occurrence of biologically active compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic compounds, saponins, and tannins. Investigations conducted using in vitro methods and in vivo models demonstrated notable antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anthelmintic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, and hemolytic properties. Extracts derived particularly from the stem bark and leaves showed appreciable biological activity. Furthermore, experimental studies reported protective effects against chronic arsenic-induced toxicity, suggesting its prospective role in mitigating oxidative and cellular damage. The observed pharmacological responses were correlated with availability of plant’s rich phenolic and flavonoid content, which contributed to free radical scavenging and protective actions. Although the available findings supported many of its traditional claims, inconsistencies in extraction procedures and study designs highlighted the necessity for further controlled investigations. Standardization of dosage, identification of active principles, safety profiling, and clarification of mechanisms of action were required to advance its therapeutic application. Overall, the compiled evidence indicated that Bauhinia acuminata represented a promising candidate for development of future plant-based medicinal agents.
Oral cancer represents a major public health challenge in India accounting for significant mortality globally. It is among the most common cancers in the south-east asia, due to prevalent tobacco use and betel-quid chewing. Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common malignant tumor of the oral cavity, accounting for most of oral cancers. Salvia officinalis L. (common sage) has long been valued in traditional healing systems for its pharmacological potential. The bioactivity of Salvia officinalis is due to its diverse profile of phytochemicals, such as rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol, terpenoids and flavonoids. Preliminary findings suggest that Sage extracts act through inhibition of proinflammatory NF-?B signaling pathways and regulation of MAPK/ERK signaling cascades involved in tumor progression. These are also involved in scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to protect cells from oxidative cellular damage leading to apoptosis by modulating mitochondrial associated pathways. Sage extracts report significantly reduced viability of human carcinoma cells, altering the expression of genes regulating cell cycle control, DNA repair, and p53 signaling, suggesting activation of tumor-suppressive pathways. One of the major bioactive compounds in sage, rosmarinic acid, has been shown to suppress proliferation of oral cancer cells, by inducing G2/M cell-cycle arrest, trigger endoplasmic reticulum stress, and promote apoptosis, while also reducing their migratory capacity. Present investigations further indicate that sage preparations may offer therapeutic benefits in managing inflammatory and other metabolic disorders related to OSCC and are generally safe for human use. Overall, these findings highlight Salvia officinalis as a scientifically relevant medicinal resource rich in bioactive phytochemicals for management of OSCC. Further research, particularly mechanistic investigations and in vivo validation, is required to establish its clinical efficacy and safety.
The chemical composition of leaf essential oil from Gymnanthemum amygdalinum was analyzed for seasonal variation using GC and GC-MS methods. Leaves collected in summer, rainy, winter and spring seasons were used to obtain essential oils through hydrodistillation. The oil yield varied between 0.27% and 0.36%. A total of 36 compounds were identified, accounting for 74.91%, 83.37%, 97.87%, and 85.04% of the total oil composition during summer, rainy season, winter and spring, respectively. Throughout all seasons, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were the predominant components, winter exhibiting the highest proportion at 28.46%. Across all seasons, ß-pinene was the predominant monoterpene, peaking at 3.43% in winter. The main sesquiterpenes were ß-caryophyllene and germacrene D, while the major oxygenated monoterpenes were borneol, dihydrocarveol, isobornyl acetate and ß-thujone. Oxygenated sesquiterpenes like farnesol, t-cadinol, ß-bisabolol, and spathulenol were always found. With winter and spring recognized as the best harvesting times for bioactive terpenoids, the research underscores significant seasonal impacts on essential oil composition.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is marked by progressive neuronal deterioration resulting from the convergence of mitochondrial dysfunction, disrupted iron homeostasis, elevated oxidative stress, and compromised cellular quality-control systems. In addition to the well-established roles of amyloid-a accumulation and tau pathology, mounting evidence implicates ferroptosis- an iron-dependent, lipid peroxidation-driven mode of regulated cell death-together with defects in autophagy and mitophagy, as tightly interconnected contributors to neuronal degeneration. Despite increasing recognition of this pathological interplay, therapeutic approaches capable of concurrently targeting these mechanisms remain scarce. Berberine, a naturally occurring isoquinoline alkaloid, has attracted interest as a pleiotropic compound with reported antioxidant, mitochondria-stabilizing, and autophagy-modulatory activities. In the present study, a computational systems biology approach was employed to investigate the interplay between ferroptosis, autophagy, and mitophagy in Alzheimer’s disease. Differentially expressed genes were integrated with curated pathway-specific gene sets to identify key overlapping regulators within the FMA axis. Functional enrichment and network-level analyses revealed that these genes are involved in pathways associated with oxidative stress, mitochondrial quality control, and impaired proteostasis. Furthermore, molecular docking analysis suggested that berberine exhibits favourable binding interactions with selected hub targets, supporting its potential role in modulating interconnected cell death and survival pathways. Collectively, these findings highlight the coordinated dysregulation of the FMA axis in AD and provide a computational basis for exploring multi-target therapeutic strategies.
Nymphaea lotus L. is an aquatic perennial plant with significant ethnobotanical, socio-economic and environmental importance. This study evaluated its ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical composition, and antimicrobial properties. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in the Zambezi region between December 2018 and April 2019. Antimicrobial activity of dichloromethane: methanol (DCM:MeOH) extracts of N. lotus flowers were tested against Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella sonnei, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris. These assessments employed disc diffusion, broth dilution, time-kill assays, and time-kill synergy methods. Ethnobotanical findings indicated that N. lotus is traditionally used for food seasoning and preservation. The antimicrobial mode of action of N. lotus flower extracts was confirmed through the leakage of electrolytes and the release of cellular materials absorbing at 260 and 280 nm. The DCM:MeOH extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity against all tested foodborne pathogens. The Independent-Sample Kruskal-Wallis test revealed no statistically significant differences between the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the 50% growth inhibition (IC50) values (p = 0.100 and p = 0.170, respectively). Further analysis confirmed that the extracts caused leakage of electrolytes, nucleic acids, and proteins from the tested pathogens. The total phenolic (302.5±0.03 mg GAE/g) and total flavonoid content (2106.8±0.04 mg CAE/g) indicate the presence of bioactive phytochemicals in N. lotus flowers. These findings suggest that N. lotus has potential as a natural preservative for controlling foodborne pathogens and may also serve as a functional food supplement to help combat malnutrition.
Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) is one of the most aggressive and heterogeneous subtypes of breast cancer, characterized by poor prognosis and often develops resistance to conventional therapy. The current study employs an integrative in silico approach to identify and evaluate the potential of phytocompounds to target genes or proteins associated with drug resistance in TNBC. This work uses high-throughput sequencing expression profiling datasets from the NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to identify differentially expressed genes. Protein-protein interaction network analyses were employed further to understand the interconnectivity of these genes, ultimately narrowing down potential druggable targets (CDK1, MAOA, DHFR, TYMS). Selected phytochemicals were screened against identified target proteins using pharmacokinetic profiling (ADMET) and molecular docking. Our findings suggest that kirenol, artesunate, apigenin, daidzein, and sclareol have the potential to target specific genes involved in chemoresistance in TNBC and can serve as therapeutic options against drug-resistant TNBC.
Arthritis is a chronic inflammatory joint disease that requires safer therapeutic alternatives to prolonged use of synthetic drugs. The present study formulated and evaluated an oral oil-in-water emulsion containing a methanolic extract of Piper betle leaves and ginger essential oil for antioxidant and anti-arthritic activity. Preliminary phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of flavonoids and phenolic compounds. The total flavonoid and phenolic contents were 132 µg quercetin equivalents/g and 66 µg gallic acid equivalents/g of extract, respectively. Among the prepared formulations, formulation F3 exhibited suitable physicochemical characteristics, and maximum drug release of 96% at 180 min. In vitro antioxidant evaluation using the hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay demonstrated concentration-dependent activity, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration values of 130 µg/mL for formulation F3 and 145 µg/mL for the extract. Anti-arthritic activity assessed by egg albumin denaturation and hyaluronidase inhibition assays showed greater inhibition by formulation F3 (IC50 158 µg/mL and 171 µg/mL, respectively) compared with the extract and comparable activity to diclofenac sodium. Molecular docking studies revealed favourable binding of selected phytoconstituents toward the bradykinin B1 receptor, with binding energies up to -7.6 kcal/mol. These findings indicated that the polyherbal emulsion enhanced the biological activity of the extract and may serve as a potential natural anti-arthritic formulation. Further in vivo and clinical investigations are required to confirm its therapeutic applicability.
Dependency of cultivation practices on chemical and synthetic fertilizers made the concern about environmental health and degradation of soil health. Organic cultivation is the farming practice which only depends upon eco-friendly approaches viz. Rishi Krishi, Natural Farming and Jaivik Krishi etc. The purpose of this review is to access the different cultivation practices of medicinal and aromatic plants by using organic materials for this different review articles were reviewed from different article data base i.e. Web of science, Elsevier and google scholar. This review indicates the different organic cultivation practices prevailing in India and also the application of different eco-friendly approaches. Furthermore, research is needed to adopt more scientific cultivation practices.
Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl. (Family: Fabaceae) is a lesser-known medicinal legume distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa. Although it is not extensively described in classical Ayurvedic literature, the plant holds considerable importance in indigenous healthcare traditions. In several regions of India, particularly among tribal communities, U. rufescens is used as a substitute for the classical Ayurvedic drug Prishniparni, one of the constituents of Dashamoola. Ethnobotanical records indicate that different parts of the plant are used in folk medicine to manage fever, inflammation, bone fractures, skin diseases, respiratory disorders, and reproductive health conditions. Leaves are commonly applied as a paste for wounds and skin infections, while root decoctions are used in the treatment of fever and musculoskeletal ailments. Occasional consumption of the seeds, a wild edible legume, also contributes to nutritional support in rural communities. Despite its continued traditional use, scientific documentation and pharmacological evaluation remain limited. This review compiles available ethnomedicinal information on U. rufescens, highlights its potential identity as a regional substitute for Prishniparni, and emphasises the need for further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations to validate its traditional therapeutic claims.
Medicinal plants constitute a vital resource for traditional and modern healthcare systems, owing to their rich repertoire of bioactive secondary metabolites. In recent years, genome sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool to elucidate the genetic basis of medicinal properties, facilitate conservation, and enable sustainable utilization of these valuable plant resources. Advances in next-generation and third-generation sequencing technologies have led to a rapid increase in the number and quality of sequenced medicinal plant genomes. High-quality chromosome-level assemblies have provided new insights into specialized metabolite biosynthesis, genome evolution, and genetic diversity. However, challenges such as large genome sizes, polyploidy, heterozygosity, and limited functional annotation remain significant. This review summarizes the current status of medicinal plant genome sequencing, highlights major technological and biological achievements, discusses existing challenges, and outlines future directions.
Excessive sodium consumption remains a critical dietary risk factor linked to cardiovascular disease and kidney disorders. This study aimed to develop a plant-based salt substitute using powders from celery, dock spinach, and wood apple in combination with potassium chloride and mild spices, and to evaluate its sensory acceptability. Three base formulations were created: wood apple dominant (Sample A), dock spinach dominant (Sample B), and celery dominant (Sample C). Based on initial screening, Sample A was reformulated into two optimized variants: A1 containing 15% potassium chloride and A2 containing 20 percent potassium chloride. Sensory evaluation was performed with trained assessors and consumer participants using nine-point hedonic ratings and Just-About-Right scaling. Results demonstrated that A2 achieved superior acceptability across all attributes. The mean overall liking score for A2 was 5.82 compared to 4.72 for A1, with the difference statistically significant (p = 0.006). In terms of saltiness perception, 74% of panelists rated A2 as “just right,” whereas only 50 percent did so for A1. A2 also showed improved aroma and mouthfeel ratings, while avoiding the bitterness and metallic aftertastes often associated with potassium chloride. These findings establish the wood apple-based formulation with 20% potassium chloride as the optimum substitute. The study highlights its potential as a practical alternative to conventional salt, offering benefits for the food industry and public health by reducing dietary sodium intake without compromising consumer satisfaction.
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an extremely virulent and treatment-resistant primary brain tumor that has a very rapid course, is commonly recurrent, and has very poor patient prognosis. Discovery of strong molecular targets is still urgent to further precision oncology in GBM. An integrative bioinformatics and computational platform was used to clarify oncogenic applicability and druggability of ribonucleotide reductase subunit M2 (RRM2) in the current study. The clinical value of RRM2 is demonstrated by the significant up-regulation in GBM in both cases of differential expression and survival analysis to accompany the poor prognostic outcome. Functional enrichment studies also highlighted its role in key oncogenic pathways, such as cell cycle, DNA replication, and nucleotide biosynthesis. These were followed by structure-based virtual screening against three validated binding sites of RRM2, which showed that several phytochemicals had better binding affinities than known inhibitors. It is worth noting that nardostachysin, calactin, and oleanolic acid surfaced as promising candidates, and they showed good consistent interaction major functional domains. ADMET and toxicity profiling identified nardostachysin as the most promising lead compound, with the best pharmacokinetic properties and good safety parameters. Taken together, these data make RRM2 an attractive therapeutic candidate in GBM and suggest some phytochemicals as potential inhibitors. This paper provide a logical basis for further experimental validation and creation of new, plant-tailored therapeutic interventions to manage GBM.
A plentiful and underutilized source of bioactive phytocompounds with great therapeutic potential is pine needles (Pinus roxburghii). The current study employs a molecular docking approach to examine the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity of five novel compounds observed in the aqueous extract of the pine needles, viz. Embelin, synthetic Pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrazole derivative, DL-Carbidopa, Thymidine, D-pantothenic acid, using lisinopril as the reference standard. The in-silico docking was used to assess the binding affinity and interaction patterns of phytocompounds obtained through prior chromatographic profiling inside the ACE active site. According to the docking results, a number of compounds showed strong binding affinities, with docking scores (-5.686 kcal/mol, -9.046 kcal/mol, -8.217 kcal/mol, -7.049 kcal/mol, -6.741 kcal/mol) that were either equal to or higher than those of lisinopril (-6.755 kcal/mol), suggesting a considerable inhibitory potential. Effective ACE activity inhibition and ligand enzyme complex stability depend on these interactions. Additionally, there was a significant overlap between the binding conformations of the best-performing phytocompounds and lisinopril, indicating a comparable mechanism of inhibition. Enhanced binding interactions were greatly aided by the presence of functional groups like hydroxyl and carbonyl moieties. In general, the results indicate the potential of phytochemicals derived from pine needles as natural ACE inhibitors and offer a robust scientific basis for further in vitro and in vivo validation toward the formulation of plant-based hypertension therapies.
