The article examines democratic backsliding as the deliberate weakening of democratic institutions, norms, and oversight mechanisms by the state or political and/or economic elites. It places particular emphasis on independent media, academia, and non-governmental organisations, all of which play a vital role in maintaining the balance of power and safeguarding democracy, the rule of law, and human rights. For this very reason, they are frequently subjected to political and economic pressure. The analysis focuses on threats and attacks carried out through the use of law, namely via ostensibly lawful procedures that in reality constitute an abuse of legal instruments. Such practices are often cloaked in legal language and formal structures, thereby appearing legitimate, even though their true purpose is to intimidate, exhaust, and silence critics. The author links these developments to democratic backsliding, illiberal democracy, and the broader concept of hybrid threats. In response, both the Council of Europe and the European Union have begun developing protective mechanisms, particularly those addressing SLAPP lawsuits. These lawsuits are not intended to succeed on their merits, but rather to impose financial and psychological strain on the target and to produce a chilling effect. The article highlights that defining SLAPPs is inherently complex, as it requires a careful balance between freedom of expression and the right of access to justice. Key elements of such lawsuits include an imbalance of power between the parties, the lack of substantive merit in the claims, an intention to intimidate, and a detrimental impact on public participation. Furthermore, the author examines the European legal framework, including the European Democracy Action Plan, the EU Anti-SLAPP Directive, and the recommendations of the Council of Europe, while also drawing attention to the Slovenian legislation designed to protect against abusive judicial proceedings. Illustrative examples from Italy, Turkey, and Slovenia are provided. The central conclusion of the article is that law is increasingly being used as a tool to silence critics, that it is being & raquo;weaponised & laquo; and therefore protective measures must be carefully calibrated, proportionate, and thoughtfully designed so as not to undermine the very democratic values they seek to defend.
This article analyses how the delivery of offender treatment in the Slovenian prison system changes under conditions of pronounced systemic strain. It begins with an understanding of treatment as a relational, holistic, and interdisciplinary practice which both staff and prisoners view, not merely as a set of programmes, but as a process dependent on continuity, individualization, and access to professional support. This study is a pilot qualitative inquiry, with data collected between November 2024 and July 2025 through guided focus groups in five prisons (Dob, Ljubljana, Maribor, Koper, Celje). The sample included 33 Slovenian-speaking prisoners (serving longer sentences and/or recidivists) and 22 staff members from diverse professional backgrounds. The analysis was conducted using thematic analysis. The findings show that, as pressures increase, treatment contracts at their core (stable relationships, continuity, and individualization) become increasingly formalized. This contraction is driven by four basic mechanisms: shifts in the population structure and the rise in foreign nationals (communication and inclusion in programmes), overcrowding and spatial constraints (conditions for work), staffing and administrative overload (less direct work and weaker dynamic security), and a post-release gap (disrupted continuity after release). Solidarity, mutual understanding, and perceived legitimacy in staff-prisoner relations emerge as protective factors that contribute to stability yet remain a fragile support. This study, therefore, highlights the need for systemic measures to reduce the gap between the normative aims of treatment and its practical feasibility.
International research consistently confirms that stalking is a widespread phenomenon that has important implications for public health and safety. Nevertheless, this area of research remains relatively neglected. Due to its complex nature and heterogeneity, stalking is classified as a specific form of violence, which makes it difficult for researchers and practitioners to identify those groups of perpetrators and victims that require special treatment or in-depth attention. The article analyses data from police records in Slovenia to examine the extent to which conclusions can be drawn on their basis about the characteristics and dimensions of the phenomenon. Thus, restraining orders in cases where the measure was imposed due to stalking are analysed, as these cases represent more than ten percent of the total sample (52 cases). The results of a qualitative analysis are presented; through case descriptions, an assessment is given as to which type of stalker is most often present, how they carry out stalking, and against whom and whether stalkers violate restraining orders and in what ways. Attention is paid to the limitations of the research, while suggestions for further research in this area are also provided.
The validity of Benford's Law was examined in the financial statements of micro and small enterprises (MSEs), and sole proprietors (SPs) in Slovenia. In addition, a practical perspective on the applicability, interpretation, and limitations of testing Benford's Law (BL) was provided to criminologists and oversight authorities. The study reviews previous findings on the use of BL and presents an original application to MSE and SP data covering the period 2010-2022. To assess the conformity of selected data with Benford's distribution, the following methods were employed: the Chi-square test, Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD), Bayes factor, and visual inspection of computed results. The analysis indicates that within the MSE population, only net income consistently conforms to Benford's Law in certain years, while total assets and revenues generally do not. In the SP population, none of the observed categories conform to Benford's Law, with the exception of net income in 2016, 2019, and 2021. The persistent nonconformity observed in MSE total assets, and all SP variables underscores the necessity for additional targeted forensic examinations. In consideration of the findings, it is posited that the reliability of MSE data pertaining to total assets and the aggregate financial statements of SPs is questionable. Consequently, the findings of this study demonstrate that, when applied with care and accuracy, Benford's Law has the potential to serve as a valuable tool for identifying the risks of unreliable data in financial statements, particularly when applied to specific accounting categories. Testing BL and the analyses derived from it are especially useful in the initial stages of investigating suspected economic crime, as they help detect potential manipulations early and direct subsequent forensic investigations. However, its application must remain cautious, with full awareness of the method's inherent limitations and the conditions required to ensure the reliability of its outcomes.
Recidivism prediction is a critical component of modern criminal justice systems, especially in efforts to design more effective rehabilitation and risk assessment strategies. This study applies explainable machine learning (ML) techniques to analyze recidivism risk among formerly incarcerated individuals using a real-world correctional dataset from an Eastern European country. We compare the predictive performance of several models, including logistic regression, random forest, and XGBoost, with a particular focus on model interpretability using SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) values. The results show that ML models significantly outperform traditional statistical approaches in predictive accuracy, with XGBoost achieving the highest performance (AUC = 0.83). Moreover, explainability analysis reveals that factors such as age at release, prior offense type, educational attainment, and employment status are key predictors of reoffending. The study highlights the potential of interpretable ML tools to support data-driven decision-making in corrections and parole systems, ensuring both predictive power and transparency.
Public attitudes toward sex offenders are shaped by sociocultural narratives and affective responses that significantly influence policy and risk management practices yet remain inadequately understood at the level of implicit cognition and symbolic representation. Traditional survey methodologies, while effective for assessing explicit attitudes, are limited in accessing non-verbal, tacit dimensions of public perception. To address this gap, the present study employed an exploratory descriptive design utilizing the iSquare visual methodology with a sample of 50 adults in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Participants were instructed to draw a "sex offender," and their drawings were analysed through a hybrid thematic coding framework integrating inductive and deductive approaches. Results indicated that 78% of participants depicted male offenders, commonly invoking stereotypes such as "stranger danger" and advanced age. Notably, 33% included child victims despite no such prompt, reflecting a pronounced public conflation of sex offending with child victimization. Participants also reported intense negative emotions, particularly anger and disgust which correlated with endorsement of punitive policy responses. These findings highlight the value of visual methodologies as a complementary approach to conventional surveys, offering insight into implicit stereotypes, emotional underpinnings, and representational biases that may otherwise remain inaccessible. Future research should employ more diverse and targeted sampling strategies, including cross-cultural comparisons and key stakeholder groups such as policymakers to further clarify the complexities of public attitudes toward distinct categories of sexual offending.
Disciplinary proceedings are significant negative work events in policing, yet their psychological and attitudinal effects remain underexplored. We surveyed Slovenian police officers (N = 443; n = 115 with personal experience of disciplinary proceedings) to examine stress appraisal, consequences, organisational cynicism, self-efficacy, perceived changes in relationships, and coping strategies. Initiation of proceedings was generally viewed as stressful. Data reduction identified four coherent consequence dimensions: 1) Emotional distress and affective escalation (most prominent), 2) Erosion of self-worth and social insecurity, 3) Somatic strain and physiological arousal, and 4) Cognitive impairment and reduced motivation. Interpersonal strain was mainly intra-organisational (within units or supervisors), while attitudes towards citizens remained largely unchanged. Organisational cynicism exhibited a two-factor structure- Organisational (leadership, rules, and integrity) and Community-with slightly higher averages among officers with experience in disciplinary proceedings, although group differences were small. Both cynicism factors showed small-to-moderate positive correlations with adverse outcomes; in regression, procedural justice uniquely predicted lower cognitive strain, while organisational cynicism displayed positive but non-robust associations (trend-level for somatic), after accounting for demographics and self-efficacy. Finally, a brief self-efficacy scale formed a single factor; overall differences by disciplinary experience were minor, with weaknesses mainly in mastery-related items. Coping mostly involved adaptive informal strategies and union support, with limited use of formal psychological services. The findings highlight the importance of procedural justice, clear and consistent supervisory practices, and confidential avenues to reduce emotional maintain self and diminish
Green criminology does not provide a comprehensive explanation for environmental crimes committed by armed forces. In the article, the cases are analysed using open coding to aggregate contextual characteristics of environmental crime committed by the armed forces, and the data are interpreted using an ideal-type qualitative method. Results reveal that environmental crimes committed by the armed forces are generated under the influence of political, geographical, and economic contextual factors. Environmental crimes of the armed forces in the Republic of Slovenia are primarily reflected in the political (44%) and geographical (32%) dimensions. Given the intensity, on the political dimension, we identify some problematic (49%) (court proceedings, opposition, presence of foreign armed forces, etc.) contextual features of the environmental crime of the armed forces, while on the geographical dimension (85%) (geomorphological characteristics of the soil, presence of nature reserves, proximity to populated areas, etc.). Although the Slovenian Armed Forces are an environmentally responsible institution, in the case of the Republic of Slovenia, there are political and geographical factors that influence the detection threshold of environmental crimes by the armed forces, which should be considered by political decision-makers.
This paper examines the collaboration between China and Serbia on lunar missions through a critical space criminological perspective. China's ambitions to gain a permanent presence in Europe, demonstrated by its control of key transport hubs like the Port of Piraeus and the Port of Hamburg, have been strengthened by its collaboration with Serbia. This relationship is based on a strategic partnership and cooperation in international forums, supported by (geo)political ties, as well as military collaboration with Serbia, deploying the FK-3 air defense system. Moreover, Serbia has joined the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) program, which extends Serbo-Chinese ties into space. Building on the emerging field of space criminology, we propose to apply critical space criminology to explore how terrestrial geopolitical and economic struggles are extended and amplified into outer space in Serbo-Chinese relations. We deliver an analysis of how China's terrestrial actions, such as its mineral mining investments in Serbia, may parallel its ambitions in outer space, which suggests that these cosmic ambitions have a complex relationship with Earth-bound conflicts. They hint at how power dynamics and neocolonial logics additionally might be reproduced and extended into a new frontier. Finally, based on the analysis, we point out that these global and cosmic dynamics could inform regional concerns in the Balkans more broadly, leading the way toward Balkan space criminology.
This research serves to explore the phenomenon of so-called "Scam Cities": urban or semi-urban hubs, primarily located in Southeast Asia, where criminal networks orchestrate large-scale cyber fraud through the exploitation of trafficked individuals subjected to forced labour. Often disguised as call centres or gambling operations, these compounds represent a convergence of cybercrime, human trafficking and transnational organized crime. Despite growing journalistic attention, the subject remains underexamined in legal and criminological literature. The study develops along two main axes. The first examines the "life cycle" of scam compounds, focusing on: 1) deceptive recruitment strategies; 2) organizational structures; 3) fraud schemes employed; and 4) illicit financial flows. The second provides responses across a temporal spectrum: 1) prevention, aimed at mitigating criminal risks and enhancing awareness; 2) enforcement, directed at identifying countermeasures and related legal lacunae; and 3) post-release support, addressing survivors' reintegration and legal recognition. By addressing these dimensions, the study aims to contribute to global discussions on scam compounds, deepen academic understanding of the phenomenon and provide insights to inform policy, legal frameworks and practical interventions.
This article examines how Slovenia's strategic position and post-socialist transformation have positioned it as a bridge between Western and Eastern European criminology. Drawing on peer-reviewed scholarship, Council of Europe statistics, and policy developments since independence in 1991, the analysis traces convergence and divergence patterns across six criminal justice domains: juvenile justice, penal policy and imprisonment, probation, organized crime, victims' rights, and policing. The argument is threefold. First, Slovenia demonstrates meaningful convergence with Western European standards, particularly through diversionary youth justice, restrained imprisonment rates, and institutionalized probation services. Second, distinctive contexts-notably geographic position within transnational illicit markets and post-socialist institutional legacies-continue to shape specific challenges in organized crime control and public trust. Third, hybrid solutions that adapt Western models to local traditions have been central to Slovenia's reform trajectory. The delayed yet rapid establishment of probation services exemplifies how late adopters can achieve swift, effective modernization by learning from neighbours while maintaining institutional coherence. Slovenia thus offers a laboratory of reform where the dynamics of convergence, the persistence of context, and the value of hybridization remain especially visible, providing policy lessons for European criminal justice systems confronting shared transnational challenges.
Microplastic pollution in Indian rivers characterises a key, less explored environmental issue with significant public health consequences. The current legislation in India, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act and the Environment (Protection) Act, does not have specific provisions addressing microplastic pollution. The present study aims to evaluate how scientific knowledge of microplastic behaviour can contribute to shaping the stringent and supportive regulatory systems for India's freshwater ecosystems. The research employs applied policy research methods to examine how scientific knowledge of microplastic breakdown can be used to shape more effective and responsive environmental regulation. The study employs a mixed methodology. The first involves a policy review of a systematic nature that examines Indian river pollution policies, government reports, and monitoring systems to establish gaps in institutions. The second involves the use of interdisciplinary Indo-European collaborations that utilise laboratory experiments and machine learning to simulate emissions from ageing microplastics under different environmental conditions. Third, the research performs machine learning and comparative EU frameworks for adaptive governance against the precautionary governance framework of the EU. The research points to regulatory blind spots in existing pollution legislation, the necessity of pollutant-based monitoring frameworks, and the utility of integrating new environmental science into governance arrangements to frame adaptive, evidence-driven policies. The study further integrates machine-learning-based degradation simulations and machine-learning and comparative EU frameworks for adaptive governance between India and the European Union to develop actionable foresight for evidence-driven governance.
The paper focuses on measuring the social climate in Serbian prisons. The translated and modified version of the MQPL questionnaire was applied in five Serbian prisons to measure the following dimensions of social climate: 1) Harmony, 2) Professionalism, 3) Security, 4) Conditions and family contact, and 5) Wellbeing and development. The survey took place from May 2022 to January 2023 in Sremska Mitrovica, Ni & scaron;, Po & zcaron;arevac, Zabela, and Beograd prisons. In total, 767 prisoners participated in the survey, and 618 prisoners were included in the sample. In general, the overall social climate in five Serbian prisons is at an adequate level. The highest scores in all regime types were detected with dimension Conditions and family contact, while the lowest were detected with Security in open and semi-open regimes, and Professionalism in closed regimes. A comparison of social climate in different prison regimes shows that prisoners in open and semi-open regimes perceive all dimensions (Harmony, Professionalism, Conditions and family contact, and Well-being and development), except for the Security dimension, more positively compared to prisoners in closed regimes. In conclusion, the findings of the pilot study on measuring social climate in Serbian prisons and future research prospects are discussed.
This paper uses institutional adaptation theory to assess the implementation of EU law in member states. It focuses on Germany, France and Italy, examining their adherence to the EU Anti-Corruption Directive. The analysis uses three approaches. Germany combines a strong legal culture with robust administrative practices, resulting in a robust but unwieldy approach. France, a centralised state, follows an efficient but hard-to-monitor approach. Italy, however, has devised a different approach, using digital technology to overcome its own problems. The study's findings reveal that policy success hinges on striking a balance between policy goals and governance structures, rather than simply adhering to similar rules. The most important concept is policy transfer by ongoing talks between different institutions where external policies interact with domestic ideas and rules. This is to say that the EU's governance will continue to evolve. For the future, the EU policy should be aimed at adaptability in the light of general principles and cognisant of the varying nature of governance by its member states. The paper also concludes that further research should be done to examine how institutions and people interact in this digital age, and ways must be found to ensure the adherence to rules is achieved without hindering various types of individuals that these meetings may prove to be very vital in solving the increasingly complex problems of modern times.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remains a significant mental health challenge among victims of violent crime, often characterized by heightened physiological arousal and maladaptive fear responses. Virtual reality (VR) has recently emerged as a promising tool for exposure-based therapy, offering controlled, immersive environments that can enhance ecological validity compared to traditional methods. This study investigates the psychophysiological responses elicited during VR-based exposure therapy, including heart rate variability, galvanic skin response, and cortisol levels, to assess both stress activation and recovery patterns. Findings indicate that while VR scenarios initially trigger elevated arousal comparable to in vivo exposure, repeated sessions are associated with gradual habituation and improved emotion regulation. Importantly, reductions in physiological reactivity were paralleled by self-reported decreases in intrusive memories and avoidance behaviors. These results suggest that monitoring psychophysiological markers provides valuable insight into treatment progress and may guide individualized therapeutic adjustments. The study highlights the potential of VR-based interventions as an effective and adaptable approach for treating PTSD in victims of violent crime.
This article presents data on crimes investigated by the Slovenian police in 2024, as well as factors that affected the work of the police. The statistical data only cover crimes known to the police, i.e., reported and detected criminal offences. The priorities of the police are defined in the medium-term plan for the development and work of the police, 2023-2027, the annual plan for the work of the police for 2024 and other strategic documents. In 2024, the police dealt with security challenges including violence, especially peer violence, domestic violence and riots at sports events, illegal migration and increased level of terrorism threat which led to the continued temporary re-control of internal borders. Security in the local community in 2024 was also linked to causes stemming from the failure to address the issue of the multi-ethnic community, as well as foreigners as perpetrators of criminal offences. Already at the beginning of the summer, the police intensified their activities in municipalities with multi-ethnic communities, especially in the area of Southeastern Slovenia. Addressing open issues in multi-ethnic communities can only be successful with a real dialogue between everyone and in cooperation with all stakeholders in the local community. The investigation rate of criminal offences was 51.4%, and in the period 2015-2023, it was 50.9%. The number of criminal offences dealt with is mainly influenced by the number of general crime offences, where property crimes have the largest share. After several years of decline, the negative trend curve turned upwards in 2022, and in 2024, the number of criminal offences reached the level before the COVID-19 epidemic. A similar trend is also observed in the field of economic crime. General crime, at 83.4%, continues to represent the largest share of all crimes, while the remaining 16.6% of crimes are economic crime. Organised crime represents 1% of total crime. Criminal offences committed by juvenile offenders increased in the structure of total crime in the medium term and stabilised at 2.9% of all crimes in 2024, the same as in 2023.
Papillary line traces are important evidence of the presence of the offender at a crime scene or on objects related to the crime scene and the victim, and provide a basis for finding relevant information to confirm the presumption made. In this study, we determined the suitability of the methods of using the reagents Indandione and DFO for recovering papillary line traces. The reagents are used to examine porous and semi-porous contact surfaces. For the experimental part of recovering papillary line traces, we used white paper, white printed paper, paper towels, brown cardboard, colour magazines, newspapers, tea packaging, cigarette packaging boxes and waxed cardboard. Before the experimental process, papillary line traces were caused on the objects. The samples were stored in a dark laboratory room at room temperature between 22OC and 24OC and prepared for recovery at different time intervals. Indandione in controlled and uncontrolled conditions, and DFO in controlled conditions were used for the recovery of papillary line traces. After completing the recovery procedures and evaluating the papillary line traces, we found that about 50% more lines were recovered with Indandione than DFO on the samples. The quality and usefulness of the papillary line traces were also better with Indandione, which provides a more sound basis for further examination of individual cases. In our study, we found that Indandione is useful for recovering papillary line traces on (semi)porous surfaces. The final results showed that the effectiveness of Indandione in recovering papillary line traces on the study examination areas is superior to DFO. The Indandione method will be implemented in the future in forensic fingerprint examination of the laboratory.
