According to various estimates, there are anywhere from several hundred to a thousand initiatives for the protection, planting and reproduction of forests in Russia with a declared environmental effect. Russia has enormous potential for generating carbon units through forest climate projects. However, this opportunity is practically unused. One of the reasons for such low development is the lack of a methodological basis for forest climatic projects. In this regard, the purpose of this study is to analyse the main methodologies used for the calculation, verification and certification of forest management projects aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing carbon sequestration. This article examined forest management projects that have achieved certification under Verra's Verified Carbon Standard, the world's leading voluntary carbon markets program. The methodologies classification was carried out according to the types of activities involved in the projects: 1) reforestation and afforestation; 2) forest management improvements; 3) reducing the emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. This paper contributes to a detailed analysis of the methodologies used for calculating the forest climatic projects in the world and identifying the relevant methodologies that can be used to calculate the carbon units for forest climatic projects in Russia. Also presented are the universal recommendations for reporting forest climate projects.
The article presents data on the accumulation of heavy metals in calcic chernozems, as well as in the leaves and needles of certain woody plant species: white poplar (Populus alba L.) and boxelder maple (Acer negundo L.), Crimean pine (Pinus nigra var. pallasiana D. Don) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), growing on the territory of the deciduous and coniferous trees nursery of the Southern Federal University’s Botanical Garden. The calculated values of concentration coefficients (Kc) for soils under deciduous and coniferous trees indicate a low level of soil contamination. Both deciduous and coniferous species exhibit a barrier mechanism for the entry of heavy metals, characterized by selectivity with respect to chemical elements, which is shown through the coefficients of biological absorption of heavy metals. According to the accumulation intensity, heavy metals in deciduous species can be arranged in the following series: Zn Pb Cu, while in coniferous species the sequence was found to be Zn ≈ Cu Pb. In the accumulation of metals by deciduous trees, the participation of the leaf surface is more significant, hence the inversion of lead and copper in the series of metals accumulation by deciduous trees, caused by the of lead particles being airborne and partially collected by the leaves’ surface.
The dynamics of forest growth on agricultural lands has been studied since the 1990s, which was the starting point of a massive reduction in their cultivation intensity. The total area of the overgrown agricultural land in the Perm Territory reached 58.8% of the total area of agricultural land as of 1985. The boundaries of the forested lands were recorded using remote sensing methods and the archival satellite images of medium spatial resolution. The dynamics analysis was carried out within the flat part of the Perm Territory, taking into account the soil regions’ boundaries. It has been established that the main natural factors of lands differentiation in terms of the scale and rate of their withdrawal from agricultural use are the small scale or uneven terrain of separate agricultural lands, making it less accessible for the agricultural machines, and differences in soil fertility. The least fertile soils, as well as the most difficult to cultivate, were the first to become susceptible to forest overgrowth. The more fertile soils were reforested later, as agricultural activity declined.
In view of actively discussed intensification of forest management, decreasing areas of natural forests and associated biological diversity, understanding the mechanisms of biogeocenoses recovery after disturbances is becoming more and more relevant. We studied the successional dynamics of middle taiga forest communities after first clear cut as compared to the natural dynamics of primeval forest communities in the control plots. Our specific objectives were to: 1) compare growing stock of forest stands (total values, distribution by tree species, variation during the observation period); 2) identify distribution of trees number and growing stock by diameter; 3) evaluate the indicators of stand productivity (annual growth increment); 4) describe the dynamics of tree species composition in the harvested forest stands. The results rely on the long-term permanent plot records. The growing stock and the number of trees in primeval stands weren’t constant over the observation period. Natural disturbances caused by strong winds contributed to a significant fluctuation in the number of trees and growing stock of some stands. The growing stock of stands recovering after felling in many cases becomes comparable to the stock of primeval forest stands by the age of 50 years. At certain periods, in some primeval and harvested forest stands, there is a similarity in the diameter distribution of growing stock and the number of trees caused by disturbances of similar severity — clear cut or windthrow. The productivity of middle-aged forest stands was significantly higher than that of primeval stands. Many first time clear cut forest stands were characterized by the dominance of deciduous species. Nevertheless, conifers also had a significant share in most tree stands on the account of preserved spruce undergrowth and seeding from the neighboring tree stands. Our results can be used for developing optimal forest management scenarios and restoration programmes for forest ecosystem services in managed forests.
The issues of diagnosing tree growth in a plantation are of a significant scientific and practical interest. The purpose of this research is to substantiate the use of the indicator “tree height at 10 years of age” to diagnose their subsequent growth and productivity in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) forest crops. Seventy-year-old spruce monocultures are chosen as objects for the study. Model trees are chosen on trial plots (TPs) using step-by-step proportional representation. After cross-cutting, they were subjected to a complete analysis of the trunk, and, as a result, the height of the tree at 10 years of age and the height, diameter, and volume of the trunk at 70 years of age are calculated. It has been established that, with age in spruce forest plantations, some of the trees that started off stronger may eventually lose their ranking positions, while the initially weaker trees, on the contrary, can rise up through the ranks. At the same time, the more average trees in the plantation remain at the center of such a process; according to all three inventory indicators (height, diameter, and the volume of the trunk), their position becomes the most stable with age. Thus, the height at 10 years of age can be considered a diagnostic sign indicating the further growth of trees in forest plantations.
The study of the structural features of indigenous taiga’s woody fractions allows us to evaluate the balance process of accumulation and decomposition of woody biomass in forest communities. The purpose of the research is to study, using the example of European taiga’s spruce forests, the processes and organisms involved in forming the balance of biomass of woody fractions in indigenous ecosystems of different ages and with different dynamic characteristics. The research objects were located in the spruce forests of the northern, middle and southern taiga of European Russia. On permanent study plots (PSP), the diameters of trunks and the age of trees were determined, age series were put together by generations, and the total volumes of trees, forest stands and woody waste were calculated. Within the generations of the aforementioned age series and the forest stands overall, infestations by wood-decaying fungi (WDF) of biotrophic and xylotrophic complexes were determined. Indigenous spruce forests of the taiga have a complex multi-aged structure, differing in volume and trees infestation rate by WDF of the biotrophic complex within both the generations and the forest stands as a whole. It determines the different phase position of ecosystems. The trend of increasing tree infestation rate from younger to older generations is interpreted as a pattern. To calculate the balance of woody fractions biomass in a forest ecosystem, it is necessary to combine within a single time process the woody fractions of the forest stand and woody waste — dead wood and the current woody waste. The main factor in the formation of the biomass balance of a spruce community is the rate of wood accumulation and decomposition processes. In native spruce forests of different ages in the taiga zone, the rate of xylolysis of wood waste by WDF is several times higher than the rate of biomass accumulation in the forest stand. The balance of the biomass accumulation and decomposition processes intensity is presented as the balance coefficient of the spruce community’s woody fractions biomass, showing how much does the rate of the woody waste decomposition process performed by the xylotrophic complex fungi exceeds the rate of the biomass accumulation process in the living part of the forest stand. Possessing an enormous xylolytic activity, the WDF of the xylotrophic complex decompose woody waste at a rate exceeding the rate of woody biomass accumulation by the phytocenosis, thereby maintaining the balance of the biomass of the forest community and its stability.
The paper presents materials that showcase the local cycle of chemical elements in the soil-phytocenosis system of a mature middle taiga polytric-sphagnum spruce forest on hydromorphic podzolic soils. The structure of organic and mineral matter of plants of different tiers is also presented here. The work also provides a concept for the nitrogen and ash elements migration in the process of phytomass forming and their influx with plant litter. The main role in the structural composition of annual production of organic matter and litter in the ecosystem of an old-growth spruce forest is played by the forest stand. It was established that 1329.84 kg ha–1of mineral nutrition elements accumulate in plant phytomass. N, Ca, and K are characterized by a greater accumulation capacity. Spruce forest plants remove 136.18 kg ha–1of mineral nutrition elements from soils with annual production. With annual litter, 107.00 kg ha–1of nitrogen and ash elements get back to the soil, of which 37.0 kg ha–1are released in the process of plant litter destruction. The main accumulator of nutrients is the organic soil horizon, where 2421.79 kg ha–1of chemical elements are concentrated. With atmospheric precipitation, 22.6 kg ha–1of nitrogen and ash elements enter the soil during the year. It has been shown that the rate of mineral elements leaching beyond the root layer (0–40 cm) with surface waters is 71.78 kg ha–1per year.
Knowledge of population structure and phenological patterns is basic to understanding the biological process, impact of disturbance, and forest successional trend. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the population structure and phenology of Milicia excelsa for seed production area. This study was conducted in Yayu and Bebeka natural forests, South West Ethiopia. Systematic sampling method was used to collect the data. Ten line transects were laid down along the gradient at each 100 m interval. Sample plots of 20 × 20 m for trees and saplings and 5 × 5 m for seedlings were laid down along transects at 50 m interval. Within the main plots, sub-plots for seedlings were laid out at the four corners and centre. A total of 60 quadrats were sampled at the Kebereta (Bebeka) and Dawe (Yayu) sites. DBH and height of trees were measured from each main plot. Data on phenology study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The results of the distribution of the population of M. excelsa exhibited almost irregular pattern across the selected natural forests. The regeneration status of M. excelsa is ‘fair’ at the Bebeka site and ‘none’ at the Yayu site. M. excelsa has the highest proportion of individuals in natural forest at the Kebereta site than at the Dawe site; thus, it is more favourable to establish a seed production area there.
The paper establishes a relationship between the temperature factor, a physico-mechanical parameter — the modulus of elasticity of the Virginian juniper (Juniperus virginianaL.) wood tissues and its crown architectonics. Thus, with high positive temperatures in summer, a decrease in the elastic modulus leads to slow bending of the skeletal branches, which, in turn, affects the crown projection area, as well as its light permeability and, as a result, the temperature and humidity under the canopy. First of all, the temperature will affect the mechanical stability of trees, which is characterised by a critical ratio of the trunk diameter to its length (coefficient d/l ≤ 0.009) and the lowest range of the trunk’s resilience. The article developed a scheme for the mechanical stability of the Virginian juniper — due to the appearance of gaps and, in general, changes in the architectonics of the crown, uneven heating of the trunk occurs, which leads to a disruption of its uniformity in terms of the physico-mechanical properties of tissues. Irreversible deformations and numerous trunk breakages were revealed at an average height of 1.5 ± 0.5 m and in the root collar zone. As a result, the light regime of the forest stand is disturbed, which affects the phytoclimatic and bioecological features of the forest steppe plantations. A change in the phytoclimate under the canopy towards increased illumination due to a change in architectonics leads to a decrease in stability and, as a result, the inability of woody plants to resist the pressure of aggressive herbaceous and tree-shrub vegetation.
The purpose of this work is to study the occurrence of Phellinus robustus (Karst.) Bourd.et Galz.) and Inonotus dryophilus (Berk.) Murr. polypores in coppice oak stands with different inventory indicators. The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that the area of oak forests throughout their range has reduced catastrophically due to the degradation and collapse of coppice stands, one of the reasons for which is the infection of oak trees with stem rot. The research was carried out on an area of 194.9 hectares of mature and overmature coppice stands in the Slavkinsky district forestry of the Nikolaevsky district, Ulyanovsk region. The occurrence of polypores was determined by setting up 6 sample plots of unspecified area with 100 trees in each. The highest occurrence of P. robustus was found in the poaceous-small-grass (PSG) oak forests (14%), with slightly lower values in the masterwort-woodruff (MW) type (13%) and the small-grass (SG) type (12%). The occurrence of I. dryophilus is significantly lower compared to P. robustus and is characterized by the following occurrence values: 7% in SG and PSG and 6% in MW oak forest types. On average, for all surveyed forest types, the occurrence value of P. robustus was 13%, and the occurrence value of I. dryophilus was 7%. In all surveyed forest types, the highest occurrence of P. robustus was observed in pure oak stands. In the SG forest type, as the proportion of oak in the forest stand decreases, so does the occurrence of P. robustus. In other types of forest, no definite dependence of P. robustus on the proportion of the oak in the stand’s composition was revealed. The same goes for I. dryophilus in all studied forest types. The highest occurrence of polypores was observed for the most part in older forest stands. As the stand’s density increases, the occurrence of both polypores in all types of oak forests increases as well.
Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.) is a valuable woody plant of great economic importance. It is decorative and is a source of strong and resilient wood, thus having a good potential for introduction. In this regard, the purpose of the study was to study the process of natural renewal, the growth dynamics and the age structure of Norway maple in the forest-steppes of the Ob region. The material for the study was 6 Norway maple trees and their undergrowth of different ages. An assessment of the natural regeneration, growth dynamics and age structure of the species was carried out taking into account the place of growth, height and age of the plant, using the methods of E.M. Lavrenko with A.A. Korchagin and R.V. Popadyuk with co-authors. The height-age structure of undergrowth and the relative participation of age groups were determined according to the recommendations of A.N. Martynov with co-authors and A.Yu. Kulagin with I.F. Shayakhmetov. It has been established that Norway maple has been successfully introduced and its undergrowth is adapted for growth in the conditions of the forest-steppe of the Ob region. The highest relative participation of age groups falls on plants 1–3 years old, with no significant difference from the place of growth. Then there is a gradual decrease in the amount of undergrowth due to natural mortality. Age groups of 4–8 years and 9–20 years, growing in favorable conditions, are characterized by more intensive growth with little mortality.
The classification of forest vegetation of the Tuul river basin within the green belt of the Ulaanbaatar city has been carried out. Two associations (Linnaeo borealis–Pinetum sibiricae and Vaccinio vitis-idaeae–Laricetum sibiricae) relating to Vaccinio–Piceetea are described. Diagnostic signs and characteristics of the ecological and geographical peculiarities of the units are presented, and anthropogenic transformation is assessed. To determine the models of succession processes, the series of permanent sample plots (PSPs) are established in the communities of the Linnaeo borealis-Pinetum sibiricae association, located at different distances from the city, in taxation units with unequal intensity of recreational load. Recreational forest assessment is calculated according to the approach by V.S. Romanov and L.N. Rozhkov (1974). In the Linnaeo borealis-Pinetum sibiricae association, large areas are occupied by moderately transformed communities. The Vaccinio vitis-idaeae–Laricetum sibiricae association is characterized by being weakly transformed forests. Different stages of anthropogenic pressure lead to the formation of serial communities unequal in structure and species diversity. Serial plant communities of allogeneic succession develop according to two models of geitogenesis: tolerance (Linnaeo borealis-Pinetum sibiricae ↔ Rhytidium rugosum; Linnaeo borealis-Pinetum sibiricae ↔ Chamaenerion angustifolium) and inhibition (Linnaeo borealis-Pinetum sibiricae → Betula rotundifolia). The comprehensive assessment of the recreational potential is based on three indicators: natural conditions, air hygiene, and landscaping. All activities aimed at increasing the recreational potential should contribute to the improvement of these indicators. A prerequisite for increasing the recreational forest assessment should be functional zoning of the territory with the allocation of infrastructure, walking, and sanitary protective zones. Forest management is of great importance in increasing the recreational assessment of forests. The forest management project for the organization of recreational forests should be aimed at the formation of sustainable and aesthetically attractive forest plantations.
The article discusses the formation of the stem wood volumes ratio between the forest stands and the deadwood in an indigenous forest community with a contribution from wood-decaying fungi, using the spruce formations of the European Russia’s taiga zone as an example. For the analysis, 30 spruce ecosystems were taken, 10 in each of the taiga subzones (northern, middle and southern) with different dynamic characteristics — climax, demutational and digressional ecosystems. Using the method of study plots (SP), the silvicultural characteristics of ecosystems and the morphometric indicators of trees were described, and the volumes of stem wood of the forest stands forming phytocenoses and the deadwood decomposed by wood-destroying fungi were calculated. Indicators of the stem wood volumes ratio between the forest stands and the dead wood in spruce plantations of various dynamic phases were calculated, for which phase position scores were calculated. Indicators of the relationship between the volumes of stem wood in forest stands and in dead wood (R2)and linear correlation coefficients (r) for forest stands of different successional positions were determined in Microsoft Excel. The calculations confirmed the presence of a relationship between the stem wood volumes of tree stands and deadwood for the studied spruce forests using a point estimate of the phase position of ecosystems: in both programs (R2 and r) the relationship indicators were characterized as strong to very strong (Chaddock, 1925).
A current, more detailed assessment of the bog and wetland areas in the Russian Federation (RF) and the carbon stock in their peat layers has been conducted. Compared to the previous assessment (Vompersky et al., 1994), the creation of the Wetlands of Russia geoinformation system (GIS) of the Institute of Forestry Science, Russian Academy of Sciences (Vompersky et al., 2005), has made it possible to include, in addition to the cartographic basis, replenishable layers of thematic content and determine the areas of peatlands and carbon stock in their peat layers not only for the whole country, but also for separate constituent entities of the RF country as a whole, but also for the constituent entities of the RF. It is important for the administration of each constituent territory to be aware of the peat stock volumes in order for sustainable nature management to be maintained. It is shown that the area of bogs and wetlands amounted to 328 million ha and the peat stock to 216.3 billion t (absolute dry mass). The stock of carbon associated with the peat was 108.7 billion t. Compared to previous estimates, the area decreased by 11
The need to assess the carbon-depositing capacity of a stand, an individual tree and its components is constantly emphasized in the world literature, since mitigation of the effects of climate change has become the highest priority. Since the carbon concentration differs in different tree species and in different components of the tree, including in the stem wood and bark, it is necessary to develop species-specific mathematical models for estimating the proportion of bark in trunks to improve the accuracy of knowledge about the carbon balance of forests. The relationship of bark thickness with both age and diameter of the tree trunk is known, but with respect to its regional variability, the data are contradictory. According to the actual data from 1100 model trees of five forest-forming species, allometric models of a mixed type have been developed. They include as independent variables the age and diameter of the trunk, as well as a binary variable characterising the influence of the growing area itself on the bark thickness of Scots pine, silver birch and Siberian larch, as well as the difference in the thickness of the bark between Siberian spruce and Siberian fir in case of joint growth in mature stands of the taiga zone. At a statistically significant level, it was found that the bark thickness of Scots pine and silver birch trees in the steppe zone is significantly greater compared to the taiga zone, and the bark thickness of Siberian larch trees in the forest-tundra is significantly greater compared to the steppe zone. The bark thickness of Siberian spruce trees is significantly less than that of Siberian fir trees. The ranking of species by bark thickness is included in the paper.
An assessment of the decrease in the photosynthesis intensity due to the lack of moisture were carried out on 6-year-old oak, pine and spruce seedlings grown in containers in the open air within the Serebryanoborsky forestry district by the Institute of Forest Science of the RAS (Moscow region). We determined at which values of pre-dawn water potential (PWP) seedlings growing in the open are resistant to the lack of moisture. Almost all seedlings of these species with insufficient water supply have a depression of photosynthesis, which occurs more rapidly as the moisture deficit increases and at lower solar radiation. In case of an oak, when the PWP reaches –1.1 MPa, the intensity of photosynthesis decreases by half, and in case of pine and spruce — at a PVP equal to –0.8 MPa. For the oak, the intensity of photosynthesis drops to zero at –3.0 MPa, in pine — at –1.6 ÷ –1.8 MPa, in spruce — at –1.5 MPa. Thus, the most resistant to the lack of moisture is oak, then pine, and the most demanding in terms of water supply is spruce.
One of the reasons for the deterioration of coniferous stands condition in a number of European countries is associated with their infection with phytoplasmas (obligate intracellular pathogens) — bacteria lacking a cell wall. The aim of the work is to identify the presence of phytoplasma infection in samples of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) collected in the Moscow and Samara regions, which had characteristic symptoms of the disease, and to determine the taxonomic affiliation of the phytoplasm. Phytoplasma was detected using direct and nested PCR with primer pairs P1/16S-Sr and R16F2n/R16R2 respectively. Phytoplasma DNA was found in six of the seven pine specimens, including an asymptomatic one. Analysis of restriction fragment length’s polymorphism after digestion of DNA amplicons with restriction endonucleases AluI, MseI, HhaI, HpaII, HaeIII, RsaI, and TaqI indicated the similarity of Russian strains of Scotch pine and mountain pine phytoplasmas to Lithuanian strains of PineLRN and PineBLD of mountain pine phytoplasma (GenBank Accession Number MK089821 and MK089819, respectively) identified as ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma pini’ (subgroup 16SrXXI-A). A phytoplasma related to this species has been registered on the territory of the Russian Federation for the first time.
The results of forest simulation modeling of the dynamics of carbon pools and fluxes in forest ecosystems under different forest management scenarios are considered using the example of the Dankovsky forestry district (south of the Moscow oblast, subzone of coniferous-broadleaved mixed forests). The impact of changes in forest management practices such as the reserve regime, the reduction in the proportion of forest lands as a result of residential development, and zoning of the territory with an emphasis on increasing the recreational use of forests on the carbon balance is analyzed. In computational experiments, a set of Russian models is used: the FORRUS-S dynamic model of a forest stand, the Romul_Hum model of soil organic matter dynamics, and the SCLISS model of the hydrothermal regime of soils. Calculations are performed for a time period of 100 years at the forestry unit level, and they are also aggregated at the level of the entire forestry district. The diversity of types of forest growth conditions (FGCs), together with the species diversity and the initial different ages of stands, determine significant variations in the calculated indicators of forest stand production and the quantity and quality of plant litter entering the soil. For all cases, model estimates of changes in carbon reserves occurred in the forest stands within the initial 40–60 years with a subsequent decrease in the calculated values. Under the conservation scenario, an increase in the organic substance reserves in forest litter and soil is observed: for FGCs C2 and C3, an increase of over 100 years was approximately 5–10 kg m–2; for the remaining FGCs, it is at the level of 2–3 kg m–2 in terms of carbon. Under the economic use scenarios, a comparative “levelling” of forestry district area towards the lower end of the spectrum is shown in terms of soil carbon reserves. The maximum ecosystem carbon stock is calculated for FGC C2 and C3, and the minimum is for A5 and C4. Depending on the scenario, over 100 years, the total net absorption of carbon by the forests of the Dankovsky forestry district (with a total area of forested land of 6836 ha) is estimated within the range of 0.15–0.57 Tg.
This article discusses the results of long-term stationary studies of the formation and development of oak-cedar pine forests with magnolia berry and hazel growing in the Southern and Middle Sikhote-Alin. Considered here are the peculiarities of stands decline, seed-based reforestation, as well as the tree species growth and development courses during the process of reforestation successions in areas with different intensity of fire exposure. Following persistent ground fires, the stands decline is most intensive in the first 5 years, with decay rates and the number of surviving trees varying in different types of burnt areas. The most active seed-based reforestation occurs on post-fire sites mainly during the first 2 years, with birch, aspen and other early stage species predominating. The rate of annual growth of the young generation of trees is the most intensive on plots significantly damaged by fire, in serial species (birch, aspen, Maak’s bird cherry, etc.) they are an order of magnitude higher than in climax broadleaved and coniferous species. Determination of dominance indices, equally dependent on the numbers of undergrowth, thin and large trees, showed that during reforestation successions after both rapid and persistent lowland fires, the phytocenotic importance dynamics in Korean pine, Mongolian oak and other forest forming species has its own peculiarities.
Significant areas of forest are annually exposed to fires in Krasnoyarsk krai. Fires transform forest areas and change the stocks and structure of combustible materials. Information on the dynamics of forest fuel accumulation can serve as a basis for managing the pyrogenic resistance of forest areas. The purpose of the research is to assess the impact of early spring ground fires of different frequencies on the structure and stocks of combustible forest materials (CFMs). Experimental fires were carried out in middle-aged mixed-grass–green moss pine forests in the forest-steppe zone of Krasnoyarsk krai. Experimental fires were simulated with different periodicities (annual, with an interval of 2 and 3 years and a singular one). Regardless of periodicity, the experimental fires led to an increase of combustible materials in 2–3 years after fires. Repeated burnings reduced the stocks of combustible materials close to prefire values. The structure of combustible materials has changed, which has led to a decrease in potential flammability of pine forests. The proportion of needles and bark in litter has decreased, and the proportion of cones has increased. Fires led to a redistribution of deadwood classes towards larger diameters. During the research period (2014–2018), the largest reserve of forest fuel loads was noted on the plot with triennial fires (68.2 t ha–1).
