The study was conducted to assess the resource economics of groundwater irrigation in the Malnad region of Karnataka, India. Primary data on cropping pattern, labour and resource use pattern of the crops grown by the farmers, returns realised, investment made on groundwater irrigation structures, yield of irrigation borewell, water used on the farm were elicited from 30 groundwater irrigation farms of Sagara, Thirthahalli and Hosanagara taluks of Shivamogga district in 2024-2025. Enterprise budgeting, duly incorporating the cost of groundwater, was conducted to assess profitability. The results indicated that the average age of the functioning borewell was 7.20 years and the average depth of the borewell was 423.62ft. The farmers witnessed initial failure of 41.49 % and premature failure of 4.26%. The Groundwater extracted per farm and per functioning borewell was 63.11 and 34.42 acre-inches, respectively. The estimated average variable cost of groundwater on the sample farms was Rs. 1408, and the annual negative externality was Rs. 21269. The economic efficiency of groundwater, as reflected in gross and net returns per rupee of groundwater, was substantial at Rs. 11.06 and Rs. 6.07, respectively. The cost of groundwater and annual negative externality reflected the unsustainable extraction of groundwater. Hence, farmers, rather than being myopic, should strike an effective balance between the economic efficiency of groundwater use and its sustainability. Groundwater, which was hitherto believed to be a free resource, has become a scarce resource; hence, farmers while using groundwater in farming should judiciously use it to realise better economic returns and sustain groundwater for the next generation.
YouTube is used in agriculture for a variety of purposes, from increasing awareness to teaching about agricultural advances. The study was conducted to analyse viewers’ responses to the videos of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. A total of 150 farmers and 64 Agriculture Development Officers (ADOs) were included in the study to ascertain viewers’ responses to selected videos. The majority of respondents perceived that the video’s language was simple, the duration of the message was sufficient, and they were highly satisfied. The majority of the farmers and ADOs (86 %) reported the information as factual. The analysis of viewer responses indicated that content relevance was the most important factor driving audience engagement, as farmers demonstrated greater interest in information that directly addressed their immediate field problems. The credibility of subject experts significantly influenced viewers’ trust and acceptance of the information provided. Presentation style played a crucial role, with visually supported explanations enhancing comprehension over purely verbal communication. The use of simple and farmer-friendly language further improved clarity and learning outcomes. High factual accuracy strengthened the institutional credibility of the digital platform, thereby reinforcing farmers’ confidence in its advisory services.
Exclusive focus on primary nutrients has reduced the availability of micronutrients to plants, posing a serious threat to nutritional security. Integrated nutrient management (INM) represents a sustainable strategy to improve soil micronutrient availability and crop yield. A study was carried out during kharif (summer) 2022 at the research farm of the Department of Soil Science, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (CSKHPKV), Palampur to evaluate the influence of INM on maize productivity along with micronutrient concentration in the soil. The experiment comprised of nine treatments with NPK at graded doses (100, 75, and 50%), FYM (7, 10 t ha-1), vermicompost (3.5, 5 t ha-1), and biofertilizers (Azotobacter + Bacillus), replicated thrice under a randomised block design. Maize variety Kanchan (K-25) was opted as the test crop. The experimental soil was acidic (pH 5.63) with silty clay loam soil texture and adequate available micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu). Soil samples were analysed for DTPA-extractable micronutrients and energy indices, while grain and stover samples were analysed for micronutrient concentration and total uptake. The synergistic application of 75% NPK along with 5 t vermicompost ha-1 (T7) and biofertilizers recorded the highest grain and stover yields, improved soil micronutrient availability, and enhanced micronutrient concentration and uptake in maize. Considering the energy indices, energy use efficiency was highest under treatment T9 (50% NPK + 5 t VC t ha-1 + biofertilizers) while other indices were highest under treatment T7. Overall, INM proved effective in improving maize productivity, soil micronutrient status and energy efficiency, highlighting its potential for sustainable crop production.
Pollination is a fundamental ecosystem service that underpins agricultural productivity, biodiversity conservation and economic sustainability. The present study assesses the economic contribution of pollination (EVP) in Punjab agriculture using secondary data for 2024-25 using the dependence ratio method. Pollination services contributed Rs 3399 million (4%) to the total agricultural economic value of Rs 80286 million. Though cereals dominate the state’s agricultural economy, they do not benefit from pollination due to their self- or wind-pollinated nature. In contrast, fruits, vegetables, oilseeds, and fibre crops exhibit significant dependence on animal pollination, with fruits accounting for the largest share (69.8%) of EVP, followed by vegetables and oilseeds. Crop-wise analysis reveals that about 61% of crops rely on pollinators to varying degrees, with the highest economic gains concentrated in crops with great and moderate dependence, including rapeseed & mustard, sunflower, guava, tomato, and cotton. The results showed that pollination services contribute to farm income and nutritional security by significantly enhancing yield and quality, particularly in high-value crops. Despite having a relatively small share in total agricultural value, pollination remains an indispensable input for achieving sustainable agricultural development. The study emphasises the need of targeted policy interventions, including the promotion of scientific beekeeping, conservation of pollinator habitats, reduced pesticide use, and increased awareness, to harness the full ecological and economic potential of pollination in the state.
Wetland ecosystems are one of the most important areas that provides various ecosystems services as well as habitat for both aquatic and terrestrial life forms. In spite of multiple functions, like biodiversity conservation, water quality improvement, erosion control and climate regulation through CO2 sequestration, wetland ecosystems are under threats. This study attempts to analyze wetland dynamics of Wadhwana Ramsar site using geospatial techniques. The land use land cover (LULC) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) were investigated through LANDSAT 5 ETM+ of 1990, 2000, 2010, and LANDSAT 8OLI/TIRS of 2020. LULC for study area extent is prepared using SENTINEL 2A 2023 dataset. The LULC is classified using supervised classification method with maximum likelihood algorithm. The red and infrared bands of Landsat imagery from three different time periods were used to calculate NDVI. Results show that wetland ecosystem in the study area decreased by 3.07 km2 (~45%) with the average rate of ~0.615 km2/year. In contrast, agricultural land decreased by 5.56 km2 with the average rate of ~0.428 km2/year between 1990 and 2020. About 0.83km2 of wetland is converted to cultivated land whereas 1.78 and 3.78km2 of Water bodies and Barren lands are converted into cultivated land indicating the biotic pressure on the wetland. To minimize the rapid loss of wetland and water bodies in the study area, proper land use planning and environmental education should be promoted.
Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia obliqua (Walker), is a polyphagous lepidopteran pest, known to cause substantial damage to a wide range of agricultural and horticultural crops. In recent years, its occurrences have become increasingly severe in castor, Ricinus communis L. cultivation in Western India. Therefore, to study the seasonal incidence and damage potential dynamics study was undertaken on castor (GCH-8) during Kharif, 2024-25 at Centre for Oilseeds Research, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar. The results revealed that peak larval incidence (43.52 larvae/plant) was observed during the 45th SMW, coinciding with maximum foliar damage (58.44%) during 44th SMW. The larval parasitoid, Cotesia ruidus (Wilkinson) was recorded from natural field infestations in castor. The highest population (1.60 spiders/plant) of spider (adult and spiderling) was recorded at 49th SMW and maximum (1.00 coccinellids/plant) coccinellids (adults) during 44th SMW and maximum population of Chrysoperla (1.40 Chrysoperla/plant) during 44th SMW. Multiple regression analysis revealed that abiotic factors had a strong influence on pest incidence, particularly larval population (R² = 0.66) and leaf damage (R² = 0.61). while, natural enemies showed weaker to moderate relationships (R² = 0.18–0.45) which indicated a greater role of abiotic factors
The diversity and distribution of scolopendrid centipedes in eastern India, particularly in West Bengal, remain poorly documented despite their ecological importance. Previous studies recorded only thirteen species from the state, indicating a significant knowledge gap. The present study provides a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the family Scolopendridae in West Bengal, based on surveys conducted between 2021 and 2024 across diverse habitats, supplemented by a literature review and examination of specimens. The study also clarifies several earlier taxonomic and distributional ambiguities through the reassessment of doubtful records and updated nomenclatural interpretations. A total of eighteen species are documented, increasing the known diversity from thirteen to eighteen species. Five species are recorded for the first time from the state, namely Ethmostigmus tristis (Meinert, 1886), Rhysida crassispina Kraepelin, 1903, Rhysida konda Joshi, Karanth & Edgecombe, 2020, Rhysida trispinosa (Jangi & Dass, 1984), and Scolopendra subspinipes Leach,1815, representing notable range extensions in eastern India. The study provides taxonomic notes, diagnoses, materials examined, and an updated distributional list for all species. These results establish a comprehensive baseline for future taxonomic, ecological, and biogeographical research on scolopendrid centipedes in the region.
This study evaluated the effect of different feeding regimes on survival, growth, and production performance of Indian major carps (Labeo catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhinus mrigala) in a semi-intensive polyculture system. Fingerlings were stocked in 80 m² cemented outdoor tanks at the rate of 1 fish m-2. The experiment was conducted by following a Completely Randomised Design: FR1 (control) with dough feed twice daily at the rate of 2% body weight; FR2, FR3, FR4, and FR5 with pelleted feed @ 2% twice daily, 2% thrice daily, 3% twice daily, and 3% thrice daily, respectively. The water quality parameters remained within optimal throughout the study. FR5 exhibited the highest survival (91.43%), followed by FR4, FR2 and FR3. Maximum net weight gain and specific growth rate were observed in FR5 for catla (33.96 g; 2.28%), followed by rohu (24.70 g; 1.67%). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) improved significantly in FR2 and FR3, whereas net fish biomass production was significantly higher in FR3, FR4, and FR5. From the results, we concluded that pelleted feed administered at 2% body weight thrice daily (FR3) represents the optimal feeding strategy for maximising growth performance and production efficiency in semi-intensive carp polyculture systems, balancing both growth outcomes and feed utilisation efficiency.
Global agricultural systems face mounting pressure from climate change and insect pest damage, which destroys 20-40% of global crop production annually. Synthetic chemical pesticides, the conventional response, have incurred heavy ecological costs through environmental contamination, toxicity to non-target organisms, and the rapid evolution of resistance in pest populations. Botanical biopesticides, derived from the rich phytochemical arsenals of medicinal plants, offer a scientifically validated alternative for building climate-resilient agricultural systems. This review synthesizes current knowledge on three critical dimensions: (1) the chemical complexity of plant secondary metabolites, including terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolics, which confer multi-target mechanisms of action against pests; (2) advanced formulation technologies such as microencapsulation and nano-formulations that enhance field persistence and climate resilience; and (3) strategic integration into Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems for insecticide resistance management. Evidence demonstrates that botanical biopesticides, when formulated and deployed strategically, provide broad-spectrum efficacy across insect pests, fungal pathogens, and nematodes. However, significant barriers, including climate-driven variability in phytochemical composition, inherent instability under environmental stressors, and regulatory frameworks designed for single-molecule synthetics, currently limit widespread adoption. A coordinated advance across molecular biology, formulation science, and regulatory reform is essential to realize the full potential of botanical biopesticides in sustainable, climate-adaptive agriculture.
This study evaluated water-use efficiency (WUE) and drought-stress-related traits in two P. kesiya populations, the Eastern (Andro) and Western (Langol), from the valley region of Manipur. The populations were sampled from sites with bioclimatic and edaphic conditions that were significantly similar yet reproductively isolated. Five trees per population were sampled for needle and wood cores for measuring wood moisture content (WMC), stomatal number per length (SNL), relative water content (RWC), and proline concentration, along with growth traits viz. height, girth at breast height. Significant differences were observed in SNL, WMC, and proline content, but not in RWC. Andro showed higher SNL (67) than Langol (57.11), suggesting greater stomatal conductance and potentially lower WUE under drought conditions. Langol's slightly lower SNL and higher proline (0.19 mM, albeit Andro's 0.14 mM) indicate a water conservation strategy and stronger biochemical defenses against drought stress. Andro's higher WMC (46.18) than Langol's 33.10 supports hydraulic resilience. Both populations maintained high RWC, indicating effective leaf hydration. These findings highlight P. kesiya's physiological plasticity, with Langol adapted to drier conditions and Andro suited to wetter environments, informing afforestation and forest management strategies in North-East India amid escalating climate change impacts.
Despite ecological relevance and susceptibility to environmental change, the Kumaun Himalaya, a biologically rich region of Uttarakhand, has received scant attention on the diversity and dynamics of lichens. In this context, the goal of this study was to examine the distribution and variety of lichens in the Hawalbagh block region of Kumaun Himalaya. For this purpose, lichen samples were collected between 1400 and 2200 m in altitude to document their diversity and distribution patterns using a stratified random sampling method. The study area was categorized into three elevation zones: lower elevation (1000-1400 m) dominated by pure pine forest; middle elevation (1400 - 1800 m) was characterized by pine-oak mixed forest, and the higher elevation (100-2200) forest zone was dominated by oak trees. An extensive field survey was conducted to collect primary data. During the study, a total of 46 species of lichen belonging to 29 genera and 12 families were encountered. Maximum 60.87% species were found as foliose, followed by crustose (19.57%) and fruticose (15.22 %) lichens. Whereas dimorphic, squamulose, and fruticose forms of lichen contributed 2.17 %, respectively. A single species of dimorphic type ( ) was observed on the soil surface in the higher region. During the field survey, it was Cladonia verticillata also observed that lopping of trees for fuel and fodder, increasing tourism activity, construction of motorable roads Quercus and resorts, particularly in the high-altitude region at Shitlakhet-Syahi Devi, frequent occurrence of forest fire, and grazing at middle and lower altitudes in pine forests, provide a threat to the lichen taxa of the region. Besides heavy anthropogenic activities, lichens on soil and rock surfaces, even on lower regions of tree trunks, are also threatened by their survival. This study suggests that habitats should be protected to support the lichen flora along with other vegetation of the region. It would be helpful to prevent the colonisation of several terricolous and saxicolous lichens on ground and rock surfaces, which are declining due to frequent occurrence of forest fires in the lower reaches of the study area.
Flower visitation by non-flying mammals remains poorly documented in South Asia. The ecological roles of palm squirrels as floral visitors and potential pollinators in India have receivedlimited systematic attention. This study aimed to document flower visitation by all four Indian palm squirrel species (Funambulusspp.), assess their roles as nectar robbers, flower predators, or occasional floral visitors across diverse plant species. Floral visitation was recorded opportunistically through direct observation, photographic and video documentation across gardens, agricultural landscapes, forest edges and protected areas in five Indian states, encompassing 40 independent observation eventsbetween December 2019 and March 2021. Observations were classified into three functional categories: nectar robbers, flower predators, and occasional visitors. A presence-absence bipartite interaction network was constructed to visualise interaction structure across squirrel species. All four palm squirrel species were recorded visiting flowers of 20 plant species, belonging to 11 families, of which 11 represent novel interaction records. Most visits involved nectar access with floral damage, indicating roles as nectar robbers or flower predators, particularly on small, fragile entomophilous flowers. Visits to large, robust flowers were less destructive and occasionally involved contact with reproductive structures, raising the possibility of opportunistic pollen transfer. The bipartite network indicated unequal interaction occurrence among squirrel species, with Funambulustristriatus recording the maximum number of plant associations, whereas Funambulussublineatus showed the minimum interactions. These findings highlight the underappreciated role of palm squirrels as frequent floral visitors in Indian plant communities.
Agroforestry parklands play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, soil fertility improvement, and climate resilience in arid and semi-arid regions. This study aimed to assess woody species diversity, regeneration capacity, and agroforestry anthropisation and vulnerability indices and to propose a sustainable management strategy across four sites: Benoue, Mayo-Louti, Mayo-Kani and Diamare in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Cameroon. Floristic inventories were conducted in 50 m × 50 m plots, where all woody individuals were identified and measured. Species diversity was analysed using Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, and Pielou's equitability indices, with principal component analysis supporting the analysis. Tree density, regeneration rates and anthropogenic pressures were also evaluated. A total of 40 woody species belonging to 36 genera and 22 families were recorded. Dominant species included Khaya senegalensis, Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca and Faidherbia albida. Tree density ranged from 59 to 179 stems per hectare. Regeneration varied markedly among species, with B. aegyptiaca showing a high rate (97.5%) and A. digitata a very low rate (0.5%). Deforestation, overgrazing and land clearing were major threats. In conclusion, although agroforestry parklands provide significant ecological and socio-economic benefits, targeted sustainable management measures are essential to ensure their long-term resilience and biodiversity conservation.
The present study was conducted during the summer season of 2024 at the Agronomy Instructional Farm, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University (SDAU), Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat, to investigate the population dynamics of major insect pests and natural enemies of sorghum and their relationship with abiotic factors. Observations on pest incidence were recorded weekly from crop emergence to harvest using six quadrats, with five plants examined in each quadrat. The results revealed that shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) damage reached a maximum of 40.00 per cent dead hearts during the 15th standard meteorological week (SMW), while stem borer (Chilo partellus) infestation peaked at 40.00 per cent during the 19th SMW. The shoot fly complex, including Ectecephala spp. and Oscinella spp., showed peak activity during the 17th SMW. Among foliage feeders, ash weevil population reached a maximum of 0.73 weevils’ plant-1 during the 18th SMW, while leafhopper population peaked at 0.56 hoppers plant-1 during the 21st SMW. The natural enemy like spiders, attained a maximum population of 0.23 spiders’ plant-1 during the 18th SMW. Correlation analysis indicated a significant negative relationship between wind speed and shoot fly incidence, whereas bright sunshine hours showed a significant positive correlation with stem borer and leafhopper populations. Maximum relative humidity was positively associated with spider abundance.
Vandiyur Lake, a critical urban wetland in Madurai, faces ecological degradation mainly from encroachment and untreated sewage discharge. This study evaluates the lake’s ecological health from December 2023 to March 2024 using physico-chemical profiling and planktonic analyses. Over the study period, both the physico-chemical profiles and planktonic community structures showed significant spatial and seasonal variability. In sampling station II, the highest organic loading was observed, with total alkalinity (321 mg/L), free CO2 (22.25 mg/L), total nitrogen (1.16 mg/L), total phosphorus (1.01 mg/L), and BOD (6.66 mg/L) coinciding with suppressed dissolved oxygen (6.82 mg/L). A total of 25 phytoplankton and 45 zooplankton species were recorded. Phytoplanktons were dominated by Cyanophyceae and Bacillariophyceae including Euglena sp., Microcystis sp. Closterium sp., Asterionella sp., and Anabaena sp., while Rotifera was the most diverse zooplankton group, including Branchionis spp., Daphnis sp., and Diaptomus sp. These taxa are widely recognized as reliable bio-indicators of eutrophication and organic pollution. Diversity indices indicated that Station I had higher species diversity and evenness, reflecting a relatively stable ecosystem. In contrast, Station II showed high species richness but lower diversity and evenness, suggesting dominance of pollution-tolerant species due to anthropogenic stress. Overall, these findings suggest an ecological imbalance caused by nutrient enrichment and sewage discharge, emphasizing the urgent need for management strategies to restore the health of the lake’s ecological health.
Fodder crops are an important component of livestock nutrition, serving as the primary source of food for dairy and meat-producing animals. However, the nutritional quality of fodder crops is lower, leading to suboptimal animal health and productivity. Long-term mineral shortages in animal diets cause nutritional disorders. Micronutrient deficiencies are more difficult to detect because they cause minor functional and structural changes in the animal body. Micronutrient requirements are essential, especially during the three to four weeks before and after parturition, as they affect the health of milch animals, breastfeeding, milk supply, and reproductive performance. Dietary supplementation of micronutrients helps to reduce the risk of infertility, foetal development, metabolic illnesses caused by negative energy balance, lowering somatic cell counts in milk, and reducing the risk of bacterial infections associated with mastitis. Micronutrients like iron, copper, manganese, zinc, selenium, cobalt and iodine are beneficial to high-yielding dairy cows, buffalo, goats, and sheep. Biofortification approaches address nutritional problems in animals worldwide by regularly introducing nutrient-enriched feed and fodder crops. Biofortification of fodder crops holds great promise as a sustainable solution to enhance the overall efficiency and productivity of livestock. Bolstering the nutritional content of fodder crops can contribute to the well-being of both animals directly and humans indirectly, fostering healthier diets, reducing malnutrition in livestock, and supporting the livelihoods of farmers worldwide.
Shifting cultivation (Jhum) landscapes of Northeast India are increasingly affected by shortened fallow cycles, resulting in declining soil fertility and reduced crop productivity. Developing restoration strategies that improve soil quality while sustaining livelihoods is therefore critical for the long-term sustainability of upland agro-ecosystems in the region. The present work investigates the benefits of integrating Bambusa tulda and fallow duration in restoring soil productivity and improving banana performance in Jhum and fallow systems of Nagaland, Northeast India. Four land-use conditions—active Jhum land (JL), 3-year fallow (AJL3), bamboo-assisted fallow (AJLB), and 12-year fallow (AJL12)—were assessed using soil quality indicators, critical-limit analysis, and agronomic evaluation of two Musa cultivars (Atsu Mungo and Aot Mungo). The findings displayed higher soil organic carbon, nutrient availability, clay content, and moisture at AJLB and AJL12, which corresponded with superior vegetative growth, reduced crop cycle duration, and higher bunch weight and relative yield compared with JL and AJL3. Critical-limit categorization placed most soil indicators of AJLB and AJL12 within the adequate range, while JL and AJL3 remained largely moderate. Stepwise regression depicted that soil moisture and clay content were the strongest predictors of yield across cultivars. This study provides the first critical-limit framework linking soil quality indicators with banana productivity in bamboo-assisted Jhum systems of Northeast India, demonstrating that bamboo-based fallow management can accelerate soil recovery and enhance crop productivity in degraded shifting-cultivation landscapes.
Traditional potato planting methods are labour-intensive, time-consuming, and often lead to inconsistent planting, which reducing yield and quality. Animal-operated planters are slow and costly to maintain, while tractor-operated planters are designed for larger farms and are unfeasible to small farmers due to their high cost and technical requirements. A potato planter for use with a 9 hp power tiller has been developed. The performance of the developed planter was evaluated based on five key parameters: draft requirement, missing index, multiple index, effective field capacity, and fuel consumption. Results shows that the minimum draft was 0.79 kN at forward speed of 1.5 km/h and a depth of 80 mm. The lowest missing index (5.33%) and multiple index (4%) occurred at 1.5 km/h and 150 mm depth. The highest effective field capacity (0.124 ha/h) was achieved at 2.5 km/h and 80 mm depth, while the lowest (0.054 ha/h) was at 1.5 km/h and 120-150 mm depth. Fuel consumption was lowest at 13.96 l/ha when operating at 1.5 km/h and 80 mm depth.
Five stations across a 40 km stretch of the upper Subarnarekha River, Ranchi district, Jharkhand, were sampled monthly from January to December 2021. Sampling covered three seasons: pre-monsoon (January–May), monsoon (June–September), and post-monsoon (October–December). Across 60 sampling events, 62 fish species were recorded, belonging to 38 genera, 19 families, and 9 orders. Cyprinidae dominated, accounting for 28 species — 45% of total richness. The highest diversity was at Tatisilwai (Site 4; H′ = 3.21, 1–D = 0.89, J′ = 0.84), where mixed rocky-muddy substrate and well-developed macrophyte beds support a notably even assemblage. Namkum (Site 3; H′ = 2.36, 1–D = 0.79) recorded the poorest diversity; domestic sewage from Ranchi city enters this reach visibly and consistently. Post-monsoon was the richest season across all five stations (repeated-measures ANOVA, F(2,8) = 9.23, p = 0.008), driven by improved discharge, better oxygen conditions, and the appearance of monsoon-season recruits. Sensitive species — Tor tor, Bagarius bagarius, and Chitala chitala — were confined to the two least disturbed upstream stations. NMDS ordination (Bray–Curtis; stress = 0.11) separated the impacted stations (3 and 5) sharply from the intact ones (1 and 4), with sand mining and effluent discharge the primary drivers. The dataset gives a repeatable baseline for managing fish communities in this stretch of the river.
The present study documents indigenous fishing gear and crafts traditionally used in Dal Lake, the Kashmir Himalaya, with emphasis on their design, specifications, and operational features. A variety of gears, including the cast net, gill net, pole-and-line (Bislia), hook-and-line, multiple-head spear, and double-pronged spear, were systematically described and standardized in terms of dimensions, materials, mesh sizes, and target species. Cast nets, identified as the dominant lacustrine gear across the valley, are primarily used to capture Cyprinids such as Schizothorax spp. and Cyprinus carpio. Gill nets (Patij) and pole & line (Bislia) also play a crucial role in selective fishing, targeting commercially important species. Spears and other traditional gears highlight the adaptive strategies of local fishers in shallow, weedy zones of the lake. Traditional crafts (Naav), largely plank-built from durable deodar wood, remain the primary means of operating gear and transporting fish. This study provides baseline technical specifications of the gears and crafts, reflecting the ecological adaptation and socio-cultural heritage of Dal Lake fishers and serving as an important reference for sustainable fisheries management, the conservation of indigenous practices, and future aquaculture engineering innovations in the Himalayan region.
