Cemetery is a multi-layered, specific space perceived as an essential component of sustainable development, contributing to the culture of space or the image of the settlement unit. Due to demographic trends and the current epidemiologic situation, the demand for burial sites has increased. Due to the lack of a commonly applied cemetery expansion strategy in Poland, new objects are often of low quality, leading to environmental degradation and a negative social perception of burial space. By the analysis of 34 selected extended cemeteries in France (11 objects), the Netherlands (9 objects), Germany (9 objects), and Slovenia (5 objects), some features of developed objects integrated with landscape and subsequently were applied while developing the concepts of three various Polish cemeteries demanding expansion. Based on this, a set of practical steps regarding the enlargement of these sites, according to the rules of sustainable development, was elaborated.
In the face of rapid urbanization and dynamic changes in the landscape, the role of urban green spaces gains in importance. Developing a compre-hensive, regionally tailored typology of urban green spaces is essential for capturing the full diversity of urban ecosystems. This study presents a novel approach to creating urban green space typology, integrating hier-archical cluster analysis as the primary method. This statistical approach utilizes numerous spatial data features, which are characteristics related to their function, morphology, and management. Using a clustering al-gorithm, elements were grouped into relatively homogeneous classes and the relationships between objects with scaled cluster distances were examined. The main result of this study is a hierarchical typology of ur-ban green spaces, distinguishing two groups and 11 types of urban green spaces. Despite the satisfactory overall results of the hierarchical cluster analysis, an extended typology was proposed because urban gardens are characterized by a very high degree of heterogeneity within a type.
The European Landscape Convention (2000) is the first European charter dedicated to all landscapes, emphasising their importance for cultural identity and well-being, and promoting community engagement in their management and planning. Various participatory planning methods have been advanced in line with this charter, yet these methods have not been widely applied to cultural landscapes in rural contexts. To ad-dress this gap, this study evaluates the added value of methods harness-ing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for community participation in rural cultural landscape settings. It does so by comparing five European participatory experiences that use both GIS-based and non-GIS-based methods for landscape planning in rural contexts. The main findings pro-vide insights into the advantages and disadvantages of various participa-tory methods based on inclusiveness, effectiveness, and repeatability. GIS-based methods show great potential in integrating citizen inputs into landscape planning, particularly by engaging a larger audience and facili-tating discussion and exchange of spatial ideas through digital maps. Fur-thermore, the authors argue that simplified GIS-based methods could help disseminate the European Landscape Convention principles of com-munity engagement in landscape planning.
Cities must adapt to increasing impacts of climate change, necessitating comprehensive and effective planning processes and instruments. This study investigates the integration of climate adaptation into urban planning, focusing on the experiences and perspectives of planners from three distinct German cities: Remscheid, Potsdam, and Würzburg. The findings reveal that despite a general awareness of adaptation measures, such as greening and open space preservation, substantial challenges remain, particularly in incorporating these measures into existing urban frameworks. Key barriers include financial constraints, regulatory obstacles, and competing land-use priorities. Differences also arise among professional perspectives; landscape planners highlight the potential of formal instruments like land-use and development plans, while land-use planners tend to express skepticism about their effectiveness. In contrast, informal instruments are predominantly viewed positively due to their flexibility and participatory nature. Stakeholder dynamics are crucial in shaping climate adaptation outcomes. Public pressure emerges as a significant driver for action, while administrative bodies often face conflicting interests that can hinder coordinated efforts. The study concludes with recommendations for better alignment of formal and informal planning instruments, increased political and administrative support, and more strategic integration of adaptation measures in the early planning stages to ensure successful implementation and enhance urban climate resilience.
The IALE European Landscape Ecology Congress, held every four years, is a key event for the European landscape ecology community, bringing together researchers, practitioners, policymakers, students, and stakeholders for knowledge exchange and collaboration. The 2025 congress in Bratislava was especially significant, taking place near Piešťany where IALE was founded in 1982, symbolizing the organization’s evolution from Cold War-era cooperation to a global network. The 2025 meeting continued this legacy by promoting dialogue and action. This editorial examines the 2025 congress, from IALE’s founding in Piešťany to its current role addressing environmental and societal crises. We review its historical context, in particular Eastern European contributions in former Czechoslovakia, and the ongoing influence of pioneers like Prof. Milan Ružička. We then analyze congress participants and their contributions using bibliometric analysis to reveal patterns and international trends. Finally, we reflect on the 2025 issue of Landscape Online, exploring how its publications align with and expand upon the key discussions and innovations that defined this year’s European Congress.
The historical cultural landscape of villages absorbed into expanding urban areas is being lost amid the multiplication of rapidly developing modern housing estates. This process is particularly pronounced in post-socialist cities such as Krakow and Lviv. The urban -architectural features of the former villages – such as building layouts, form and height, timberwork, façade materials and colours, roof types, architectural details, and the character of their immediate surroundings - once reflected a rural residential model rooted in agricultural traditions, notably in the Bronowice and Znesinnya districts. This traditional model is increasingly eroded by dynamic urban change, technological progress, and investment pressure. Consequently. Through analysis of historical documents, iconography, and cartographic materials, complemented by research field inventory, a model of traditional suburban village architecture was developed. Employing the author’s ‘building cohesion’ methodology, a detailed field inventory was conducted, and a critical zone for cultural heritage was delineated within Bronowice—a district experiencing intense development pressures. Drawing on findings from Bronowice, two development scenarios were projected for Znesinnya: one advocating harmonious, sustainable growth that respects the traditional village layout; and a second, pessimistic scenario forecasting unregulated development similar to that in Bronowice. The forecasts suggest that, without preventive legal and planning interventions, as well as both top-down and grassroots initiatives to promote awareness of the area’s rural origins, Znesinnya is likely to follow a similar trajectory of cultural landscape degradation.
Agri-Environment Measures (AEM) are the primary policy tools under the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy to combat farmland biodiversity loss, yet their effectiveness is highly variable. This synthesis paper summarizes findings of a doctoral thesis investigating drivers of variation in modelled biodiversity responses to AEM: (1) the use of different land-use intensity (LUI) metrics, (2) the types of AEM and their species-specific scale of effect, (3) landscape structural complexity across different regions. First, virtual species (i.e. species with known species-environment relationships) were used to explore how using alternative LUI metrics in biodiversity models influences the estimated species-AEM relationships. Second, bird observations for the Mulde River Basin in Germany were used to model farmland bird responses to different AEM across scales. These relationships varied across species and AEM type, but were generally strongest at the landscape level as compared to locally. Lastly, landscape-moderated effects of AEM on red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) occurrences were analyzed across three study regions in Germany, Spain and Czechia. Positive shrike-AEM associations were stronger in structurally simple compared to complex landscapes, but this effect was inconsistent across regions. These findings exemplify species-, scale- and landscape-dependent AEM effects, and support AEM’s spatial targeting and regional tailoring.
This article presents research carried out in the Lipinka Valley area in Świętochłowice, southern Poland, which was used to establish one of the statutory forms of nature protection in this area - the nature and landscape complex. As a result of analyses of historical sources and literature data, anthropogenic changes to the environment were identified, including changes to the local morphology and hydrography of the area, as well as to the physical and chemical characteristics of soils and surface waters. Analyses of the flora and fauna of the area have shown the formation of a unique mosaic of ecosystems here. The post-industrial, wartime and natural landscapes are closely linked here, contributing to the common identity dimension of the site. This article aims to bring out the relationship between these landscapes by showing how they are interdependent, how they complement each other, and how their unique characteristics promote the conservation of life and biodiversity. The aspect of the identity of the landscape also appears here, but not only as a set of its features perceived by man, but also as an evolutionarily evolving structure that is independent of the conscious will of man.
The dual crises of climate change and biodiversity loss demand integrated approaches to align renewable energy expansion with ecological conservation. Ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems, a key component of renewable energy strategies, require significant land use, potentially impacting already vulnerable ecosystems. This study reviews the scientific literature on the ecological effects of ground-mounted PV systems under Central European conditions, with Austria as a case study. Findings reveal scattered evidence of altered environmental conditions, such as changes in microclimate and soil properties, and direct impacts on biodiversity, including habitat loss, fragmentation, and species behaviour. Current planning guidelines in Austria inconsistently address biodiversity concerns, often neglecting habitats outside protected areas. Mitigation measures, such as grazing, hedgerows, and structural elements, are widely recommended but lack robust scientific validation. The study highlights the urgent need for standardized Before-After-Control-Impact (BACI) studies and adaptive monitoring to better understand biodiversity impacts and improve mitigation. Strategic conservation planning at the landscape level is essential to balance energy and ecological goals, ensuring sustainable development. This research underscores the importance of harmonizing renewable energy policies with biodiversity conservation to address the intertwined climate and biodiversity crises effectively.
The management of drained wetlands has become a key focus in the implementation of climate change adaptation measures in recent years, particularly in forested areas. Questions arise regarding appropriate methods to adequately plan and implement measures for dealing with drainage structures in forests. This study developed a methodology for analyzing the historical drainage of a forested area, specifically using the Hunsrück-Hochwald National Park as a case study. The park has undergone extensive wetland renaturation efforts, necessitating a profound understanding of the existing drainage ditch system. Three complementary methods were employed: historical analysis, LiDAR data investigations, and field surveys. The combined use of the three methods proved essential for accurately identifying and interpreting drainage structures in forested wetlands. Each method contributed unique strengths: historical analysis offered insights into the origin and intention of interventions, remote sensing enabled large-scale mapping, and field surveys ensured on-the-ground validation. Their integration not only reduced the risk of misinterpretation but also revealed the extent of past hydrological modifications and land use. This comprehensive approach provides a valuable foundation for climate-resilient conservation and water management strategies in forest landscapes.
Forest fragmentation, characterized by the reduction of forested areas and changes in their spatial distribution, greatly affects the balance of the physical environment, biodiversity, and species richness. This study aims to assess forest fragmentation and analyze overall landscape heterogeneity using landscape metrics within the Maâmora forest, the largest oak forest in Morocco, covering an area of approximately 133,000 hectares. Landsat imagery spanning a 33-years period (1989-2022) was collected and processed to evaluate forest fragmentation throughout the research period. The results revealed a downward trend in forest land class, whereas bare land, settlements, and paved roads showed an increase in area. From 1989 to 2022, forest land decreased by 15.27% relative to its initial extent in 1989, while bare land, settlements, and paved roads increased by 14.83%, 0.18%, and 0.26%, respectively. The study area was progressively fragmented, as evidenced by increased values of Patch Number (41.29%), Patch Density (41.11%), Edge Density (25.89%), and Interspersion and Juxtaposition Index (17.45%), alongside decreased values of Largest Patch Index (43.24%), Aggregation Index (3.38%) and Effective mesh size (64.67%) at the class level. Moreover, at the landscape level, the Number of Patches, Shannon Diversity Index, and Simpson Diversity Index increased by 33.3%, 15.31%, and 18.03%, respectively, whereas the Contagion Index decreased by 15.65% during the study period. These changes are primarily driven by logging, agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and infrastructure development, which increase habitat fragmentation and reduce ecological connectivity. The findings highlight the adverse effects of land cover change and forest landscape fragmentation, providing spatially explicit information to guide restoration programs and sustainable land-use planning aimed at conserving the Maâmora oak forest.
Tropical montane forests play a key role in carbon storage, but they face constant threats from land use change. However, the relations between land use change, vegetation structure and carbon stocks remain poorly understood. We aimed to assess aboveground carbon storage in four land use types within a montane forest in the Central Andes of Peru. We quantified carbon stocks from trees, crops, dead biomass, and herbaceous plants across 61 sample plots. We identified a gradient of carbon storage from highest to lowest across land uses: Old-growth Montane Forest (193.03 ± 68.2 t ha -1), Montane Forest in Regeneration (87.52 ± 50.29 t ha -1), Agroforestry (48.67 ± 24.05 t ha -1), and Croplands (12.46 ± 9.75 t ha -1). Vegetation structure variables (tree height, DBH, basal area, and tree density, canopy cover) showed a significant positive correlation with aboveground carbon stocks (r2 ranging from 0.63 to 0.91). In contrast, soil physical properties (textural class (% sand, silt, and clay) and soil bulk density) did not correlate with aboveground carbon stocks. Our estimations indicate that trees are a great carbon pool and the presence of trees with DBH ≥ 30 often indicates conservation status. This study proves that there is a loss of carbon storage and vegetation structural characteristics as land use intensifies. Restoration of degraded forests and adoption of an agroforestry approach offer promising alternatives to preserve ecosystem functions and mitigate climate change.
The effusive Sinabung Volcano eruption resulting a large negative impact on agricultural land, causing soil acidification and nutrient imbalances, reducing crop productivity and leading to the declining farmers’ income. This study was conducted on the affected area to determine a proper agronomic technology package, to assess changes in soil fertility, potato yield and quality, and to calculate the economic profit of the tested-packages. This study was laid out in a completely randomized design with five agronomic technology packages, combining organic and inorganic fertilizer, lime and sawdust. The result revealed that Package C, applying 20 t manure + 5 t sawdust + 2 t dolomite + 500 kg NPK + 100 kg Urea + 100 KCl per hectare, significantly improved soil fertility, increasing soil pH from 4.5 to 5.3 and enhancing Cation Exchange Capacity and water retention. This package also produced the highest potato yield (39.81 t/ha), which is statistically significant difference with other packages and has the best-quality tubers (grade A to C). Economically, Package C received the highest net benefit and benefit-cost ratio per hectare, by US $ 12.017.4 and 2.70, respectively. In contrast, the farmers‘ practices (Package E) resulted in lower yield, a decline in tuber quality and reduced economic income. These findings demonstrate that the integrated agronomic technology packages, particularly Package C, offer a sustainable and profitable solution for restoring soil fertility and enhancing crop production on the volcanic-affected areas. The study provides some actionable recommendations for farmers and policymakers to support agricultural recovery and resilience in the face of natural disasters.
Historical gardens epitomize socio-cultural values intricately embedded within their geometric designs and spatial configurations, offering a window into collective and civic life through the lens of landscape architecture. This study explores the interplay between the geometric structures of historical gardens from the late 16th and early 17th centuries and their spatial dynamics, aiming to bridge historical design principles with contemporary landscape practices. Employing advanced software tools and inferential statistical methods, the research examines ten renowned historical gardens spanning Persian, Mughal, East Asian, European formal, and English landscape traditions. The analysis is based on satellite maps, field observations, and simulations conducted using Depthmap software. It identifies a universal set of geometric features, quantified through metrics such as Connectivity (C), Visual Integration (VI), Visual Entropy (VE), and Gate Counts (GC), alongside their contextual cultural interpretations. Persian and Mughal gardens, with high Visual Integration, symbolize unity and spirituality, while the fragmented layouts of East Asian gardens reflect meditative exploration. In contrast, European formal gardens emphasize dominance through high Connectivity and Line Length, whereas English landscape gardens promote emotional resonance and choice-driven exploration. Quantitative correlations highlight the interconnectedness of design elements, such as the positive relationships between Connectivity, Visual Integration, and Gate Counts, and the inverse relationship between Visual Entropy and Connectivity. These findings are contextualized within cultural frameworks, revealing how spatial characteristics align with philosophical traditions and shape user experiences. By integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative cultural narratives, this study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding historical garden design. The insights offer significant implications for modern landscape architecture, urban planning, and cultural heritage preservation, advocating for the integration of historical geometric principles to create green spaces that resonate with both environmental and cultural values.
Contemporary geography education highlights the need for interdisciplinary and visually enriched pedagogies that engage students both cognitively and emotionally. Within this framework, landscape painting emerges as an effective educational tool, as it captures the physical, cultural, and emotional dimensions of the environment. The study offers a critical analysis of 18 paintings representing diverse climate and landscape zones, including tropical rainforests, savannas, hot and cold deserts, Mediterranean vegetation, steppes, temperate forests, tundra, and taiga. These artworks provide accessible visual platforms for discussing environmental features, seasonal changes, and human–environment interactions while offering insights into symbolic and cultural meanings. However, stylized representations may also introduce biases or misconceptions, necessitating pedagogical mediation. The study emphasizes the importance of balancing artistic aesthetics with geographical precision to optimize educational value. Ultimately, landscape paintings can serve as a valuable bridge between abstract geographical concepts and multisensory, tangible learning experiences.
All urban green areas can provide cultural ecosystem services (CES). The spatial structure and equipment of historic urban parks reflect changes since their establishment. These areas are often protected by local laws, limiting modernization. An interesting question is whether the historic value of a park affects the number of CES provided, and if it is possible to preserve this historic value while meeting modern user needs. The goal of this article is to determine the spatial structure of three historical urban parks in Poland, Great Britain, and Ukraine. This work compares the types of CES provided by the studied parks and examines their spatial distribution. All analysed parks provide CES, but the parks in Lublin and Lviv offer fewer CES than Lloyd Park in London, which effectively combines historical value with the growing needs of a modern 21st-century city.
In this study we analysed how topography, vegetation density and selected park attributes influence features such as coherence, complexity, legibility, mystery, sense of safety and preference in the context of natural-looking urban parks. We also examined relationships with other landscape features that may affect preference. We employed a withinsubjects design where participants evaluated a set of 108 eye-level computer generated photorealistic visualisations of park environments. Our sample comprised 200 participants (118 females and 82 males). Our findings suggest that flat terrain is perceived as safer. Dense vegetation increases the sense of mystery, while sparse vegetation was conducted for safety and legibility. The presence of plants in bloom and park architecture, and furniture were most preferred features of the park landscapes we studied. Park landscapes with plenty of light and visible sky were perceived as safer, while landscapes with less light and sky were thought to be more mysterious. The strongest predictors of Kaplan preference model preference were legibility, complexity and coherence. The greater the coherence and readability, the more the landscape was preferred. Landscape complexity positively influenced preference. Our findings indicate the complexity of the relationship between topography, vegetation and landscape preference, emphasising their relevance when designing attractive and safe parks with a natural feel.
As the global transition to renewable energy accelerates, integrating renewable energy sources (RES) into existing landscapes presents both challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. This article investigates the implementation of RES solutions in Poland, with a specific focus on agrivoltaics, and analyzes the impact of the development of RES technologies, particularly photovoltaic (PV) cells, on rural landscapes. The research examines Local Spatial Development Plans (LSDPs) in 40 municipalities in the Pomeranian Voivodeship to assess the role of photovoltaic farms in the urbanizing rural landscape. The findings reveal that while photovoltaic farms offer significant potential to meet energy goals, they also create visual, spatial, and land-use conflicts that require careful management. To address these issues, the paper explores alternative design solutions aligned with European Union sustainability goals and provides an analysis of the advantages, disadvantages, and potential application of these proposals in Poland. The research is based on literature studies, comparative analyses, and logical argumentation. The study concludes that adopting a multi-faceted approach could be crucial for integrating urban, landscape, technical, and legal actions. This approach aims to balance the benefits of RES development with the preservation of rural character and provides actionable recommendations for advancing Poland's agrivoltaic strategy.
In May 1999, about 30 people from Austria, Germany and Switzerland met in Basel (Switzerland) to found the German Chapter of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE-D) to bring together Germanspeaking researchers, planners and other people interested in landscape ecology. Now, twenty-five years later, we take this milestone as an opportunity to reflect on the evolution of the topics that have shaped the landscape ecology discourse within the IALE-D community. In this editorial, we (1) present the history of the IALE-D conferences, (2) reflect on the topics addressed by the conference contributions and how they have developed, and (3) offer some initial indications of changes in relevance with regard to technological advances, thematic foci, transdisciplinarity, sustainability issues, and cultural dimensions that can be observed over time. Furthermore, we provide an overview of the articles published in 2024 in Landscape Online, which mainly reflect two emerging topics, which follow the lines of the thematic development of the IALE-D conferences, that is, a focus on urban environments as well as on pressing issues related to global change.
Floods are extreme events that can alter the land cover and land use patterns in mountainous regions, with significant consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. However, there is a lack of comprehensive and integrated studies on the short-term and long-term effects of floods on land cover dynamics in the Central Zagros region, which is a climate change hotspot and a protected area with rich flora and fauna. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of floods on land cover changes and transitions in the Sefid Kuh Protected Area, Lorestan Province in Iran, using temporal satellite imagery from Landsat 8, land-use/land-cover change detection and fragmentation analysis, and landscape pattern indices. We also conducted fieldwork and interviews to evaluate the impact of floods on land cover from the ground and from the local people’s perspectives. Our results showed that floods caused significant disturbances and shifts in different land cover classes, such as Thin Woodlands, Thick Woodlands, Agriculture, Rock, and Snow. For the landscape pattern indices the Shannon’s Diversity Index (SHDI), Interspersion and Juxtaposition Index (IJI), Patch Density (PD), Edge Density (ED), Largest Patch Index (LPI), Aggregation Index (AI), Percentage of Land Area (PLAND), Number of Patches (NP), Total Edge (TE), Landscape Shape Index (LSI), and Splitting Index (SPLIT) have been used. Results revealed that floods reduced the diversity and heterogeneity of the landscape, increased the fragmentation and isolation of forest patches, and enhanced the aggregation and clumpiness of bare soil patches. These changes have implications for the resilience and adaptation of the study area to future flood hazards and climate change.
